Veganism
This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Veganism".

The logo of the world's first organization for vegans, the Vegan Society, registered in 1944.

Veganism is a philosophy and lifestyle that seeks to exclude the use of animals for food. ^[1][2] Vegans endeavor not to use or consume animal products of any kind.^[3] The most common reasons for becoming a vegan are ethical commitment or moral convictions concerning animal rights, the environment, human health, and spiritual or religious concerns.^[4][5][2] Of particular concern are the practices involved in factory farming and animal testing, and the intensive use of land and other resources required for animal farming.

Various polls have reported vegans to be between 0.2%^[4] and 1.3%^[6] of the U.S. population, and between 0.25%^[5] and 2.24%^[7] of the UK population.

Vegan diets (sometimes called strict or pure vegetarian diets) are a subset of vegetarian diets, which are credited with lowering the risk of colon cancer, heart attack, high blood cholesterol, high blood pressure, prostate cancer, and stroke.^[8] Properly planned vegan diets are healthful and have been found to completely satisfy nutritional needs in every stage of life, including during pregnancy and lactation.^[9] However, poorly planned vegan diets can be low in levels of calcium, iodine, vitamin B₁₂ and vitamin D. Vegans are therefore encouraged to plan their diet and take dietary supplements as appropriate.^[10]

Definition

A plate of vegan food.

The word vegan, pronounced /ˈviːgən/,^[11] or /ˈvɛdʒən/,^[12] was originally derived from "vegetarian" in 1944 when Elsie Shrigley and Donald Watson, frustrated that the term "vegetarianism" had come to include the eating of dairy products, founded the UK Vegan Society.^[13] They combined the first three and last two letters of vegetarian to form "vegan," which they saw as "the beginning and end of vegetarian."^[13][14] The Vegan Society defines veganism in this way:

[T]he word "veganism" denotes a philosophy and way of living which seeks to exclude — as far as is possible and practical — all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose; and by extension, promotes the development and use of animal-free alternatives for the benefit of humans, animals and the environment. In dietary terms it denotes the practice of dispensing with all products derived wholly or partly from animals.^[1]

Other vegan societies use similar definitions.^[15][16][17]

Demographics

Data regarding the number of vegans is available in some countries.

United States

Former 2008 Democratic presidential candidate Dennis Kucinich and his wife Elizabeth. Kucinich is known for his veganism and support of animal welfare.^[18]

A 2002 Time/CNN poll found that 4% of American adults consider themselves vegetarians, and 5% of self-described vegetarians consider themselves vegans, which implies that 0.2% of American adults are vegans.^[4] A 2006 poll conducted by Harris Interactive in the US listed specific foods and asked respondents to indicate which items they never eat, rather than asking respondents to self-identify. The survey found that of the 1,000 adults polled, 1.4% never eat meat, poultry, fish, seafood, dairy products, or eggs and were therefore essentially vegan in their eating habits. The survey also found that about 1.4% of men and 1.3% of women have vegan diets.^[6]

Europe

In 2002, the UK Food Standards Agency reported that 5% of respondents self-identified as vegetarian or vegan. Though 29% of that 5% said they avoided "all animal products", only 5% reported avoiding dairy products.^[5] Based on these figures, approximately 0.25% of the UK population follow a vegan diet. In 2005, The Times estimated there were 250,000 vegans in Britain, which suggests around 0.4% of the UK population is vegan.^[19] However, a 2007 survey for the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs into the UK population's attitudes and behaviour towards the environment found that 2.24% of the population identified themselves as vegan.^[7] In the same study, vegetarians who did not also eat chicken or fish made up 2.7% of the population. The DEFRA study also indicated that slightly more men than women are vegan, that more vegans live in towns or cities than the country, and that people aged 16-29 were vegan more often than any other age group.

Various polls and research conducted during the 1990s put the percentage of Swedish residents being vegan at between 0.27% and 1.6% of the entire population.^[20] A study of the eating patterns of 2,538 Swedish children of ages 4, 8 and 11 by the Swedish National Food Administration found that about 1% of the children were vegetarian, less than 1% were lacto-vegetarians, but found no children to be vegans.^[21] The website VeganWelt estimates there to be between 250,000 and 460,500 vegans in Germany, or between 0.3% and 0.5% of the German population.^[22] The Netherlands Association for Veganism estimates there to be approximately 16,000 vegans in the Netherlands, or around 0.1% of the Dutch population.^[23]

Animal products

Main article: Animal product

The term "animal product" in a vegan context refers to any material derived from animals for human use.^[2] Notable animal products include meat, poultry, seafood, eggs, dairy products, honey, fur, leather, wool, and silk.^[3] Common animal by-products include gelatin, lanolin, rennet, whey, casein, beeswax, and shellac.^[3]

Animal ingredients can be found in countless products and are used in the production of—though not always present in the final form of—many more;^[24][25][26] many of these ingredients are esoteric,^[27][28] also have non-animal sources,^[29] and especially in non-food products may not even be identified.^[24] Although some vegans attempt to avoid all these ingredients, Vegan Outreach argues that "it can be prohibitively expensive and time-consuming to shun every minor or hidden animal-derived ingredient," and therefore that doing what is "best for preventing suffering" is more important than identifying and excluding every animal ingredient.^[30][31]

Although honey and silk are by definition animal products, some vegans consider their use and the use of other insect products to be acceptable.^[32]

Ethical concerns

Sows at an intensive pig farm. Opposition to factory farming is one of the most common ethical reasons given for veganism.^[33]

See also: Animal rights, Ethics of eating meat, and Factory farming

Vegan organizations maintain that animals have certain rights, and as such it is not ethical for humans to use animals in ways that infringe those rights.^[34][35][36] Practices seen as cruel to animals include factory farming,^[33][37][38] animal testing,^[3][39] and displaying animals for entertainment in circuses,^[40] rodeos,^[41] and zoos.^[42]

Philosopher Tom Regan argues that animals are entities which possess "inherent value"^[43] and therefore have "basic moral rights," and that the principal moral right they possess is "the right to respectful treatment."^[44] Regan additionally argues that animals have a "basic moral right not to be harmed," which can be overridden only when the individual's right to be harmed is "morally outweighed" by "other valid moral principles."^[45][46] From this "rights view," Regan argues that "animal agriculture, as we know it, is unjust" even when animals are raised "humanely."^[47][48] Regan argues against various justifications for eating meat including that "animal flesh is tasty," that it is "habit" for "individuals and as a culture", that it is "convenient," that "meat is nutritious," that there is an obligation the economic interests of farmers or to the economic interests of a country, or that "farm animals are legal property," and finds that all fail to treat animals with the respect due to them by their basic rights.^[49] Regan therefore argues that "those who support current animal agriculture by purchasing meat have a moral obligation to stop doing so" and that "the individual has a duty to lead a vegetarian way of life."^[50]

Legal theorist Gary L. Francione argues that animals are sentient, and that this is sufficient to grant them moral consideration.^[51] Francione argues that "all sentient beings should have at least one right—the right not to be treated as property" and that there is "no moral justification for using nonhumans for our purposes."^[51] Francione further argues that adopting veganism should be regarded as the "baseline" action taken by people concerned with animal rights.^[51]

A cow restrained for slaughter.

Utilitarian philosopher Peter Singer argues that there is "no moral justification" for refusing to take sentient animal suffering into consideration in ethical decisions.^[52] Singer argues that an animal's interests warrant equal consideration with the interests of humans, and that not doing so is "speciesist."^[52] Based upon his evaluation of these interests, Singer argues that "our use of animals for food becomes questionable—especially when animal flesh is a luxury rather than a necessity."^[53] Singer does not contend that killing animals is always wrong, but that from a practical standpoint it is "better to reject altogether the killing of animals for food, unless one must do so to survive."^[54] Singer therefore advocates both veganism and improved conditions for farm animals as practical means to reduce animal suffering.^[55][56][57]

Steven Davis, a professor of animal science at Oregon State University, argues that following Tom Regan's "least harm principle" may not necessarily require the adoption a vegan diet.^[58] Davis suggests that there are non-vegetarian diets which "may kill fewer animals" than are killed in the intensive crop production necessary to support vegetarian diets. In particular, Davis argues that adopting a diet based upon "forage-ruminant-based agriculture" in the United States would kill an estimated 380-450 million fewer animals annually than a vegan diet and therefore that "humans may be morally obligated to consume a diet from plant-based plus pasture-forage-ruminant sysems."^[59]

Gaverick Matheny, a Ph.D. candidate in agricultural economics at the University of Maryland, counters that Davis' reasoning contains several major flaws, including miscalculating the number of animal deaths based on land area rather than per consumer, and incorrectly equating "the harm done to animals […] to the number of animals killed." Matheny notes that Davis' proposal is "a world apart" from agriculture "prevalent in the United States" which would "greatly improve the lives of farmed animals," but argues that per-consumer, a vegan diet would kill fewer wild animals than a diet adhering to Davis' model, and that vegetarianism "involves better treatment of animals, and likely allows a greater number of animals with lives worth living to exist."^[60]

William Jarvis, writing for The National Council Against Health Fraud, characterizes veganism as "a hygienic religion that meets deep emotional needs of its followers," who revel "in self-denial and wars against pleasure," and who "cannot be trusted to be objective, reliable sources of information on anything that bears upon its fundamental paradigm."^[61] Jarvis attacks "ideologic vegetarians," whom he claims believe that "all life is sacred" and that "all forms of life have equal value," saying that these beliefs "can lead to absurdities such as allowing mosquitoes to spread malaria, or vipers to run loose on one's premises."^[62]

Health

Main article: Vegan nutrition

The Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine recommends what they call the "Four New Food Groups."^[63] They suggest that vegans and vegetarians eat at least three servings of vegetables a day, including dark green, leafy vegetables such as broccoli, and dark yellow and orange such as carrots; five servings of whole grains (bread, rice, pasta); three of fruit; and two of legumes (beans, peas, lentils).^[63]

Benefits

Vegan version of the nutritional food pyramid which normally includes meat and animal products. Click to enlarge.

Certain widespread diets (such as the standard American diet, which is high in animal-based foods and low in plant-based foods) are detrimental to health, and a vegan diet thus represents an improvement,^[64][65] in part because vegan diets are often high enough in fruit and vegetables to meet or exceed the recommended fruit and vegetable intakes. Conversely, based on a study in Japan, researchers suggest that increased consumption of some animal products coincided with a decrease in risk for some forms of cerebrovascular disease and stroke mortality.^[66]

Benefits of vegetarian diets might be valid also for strict vegan diets: according to the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada, diets that avoid meat tend to have lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein, and higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants, such as vitamins C and E, and phytochemicals.^[10] People who avoid meat are reported to have lower body mass index than those following the average Canadian diet; from this follows lower death rates from ischemic heart disease; lower blood cholesterol levels; lower blood pressure; and lower rates of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and prostate and colon cancer.^[10]

A 1999 meta-study of five studies comparing vegetarian and non-vegetarian mortality rates in western countries found equivalent mortality rates for vegans and those who eat meat regularly. The study also found equivalent and lower mortality rates for vegetarians and those who eat meat infrequently. ^[67] A 2003 study of British vegetarians, including vegans, found similar mortality rates between vegetarians and other groups.^[68]

A 2006 study found that in people with type 2 diabetes a low-fat vegan diet reduced weight, BMI, total cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol and did so to a greater extent than the diet prescribed by the American Diabetes Association.^[69]

Precautions

Specific nutrients

The American Dietetic Association has said that "appropriately planned vegetarian diets are healthful, nutritionally adequate, and provide health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases."^[10] However, poorly planned vegan diets can be deficient in nutrients such as vitamin B₁₂,^[70] vitamin D,^[71] calcium,^[72][71] iodine^[73] and omega-3 fatty acids.^[74] These deficiencies have potentially serious consequences, including anemia,^[75] rickets^[76] and cretinism^[77] in children, and osteomalacia^[76] and hypothyroidism^[77] in adults.

Vitamin B₁₂

Deficiencies in Vitamin B₁₂, a bacterial product that cannot be reliably found in plant foods,^[78][79][75] can have serious health consequences, including anemia and neurodegenerative disease.^[80] Although clinical B₁₂ deficiency is rare in vegans,^[75] if a person has not eaten more than the daily needed amount of B₁₂ over a long period before becoming a vegan then they may not have built up any significant store of the vitamin.^[81] In a 2002 laboratory study, more of the strict vegan participants' B₁₂ and iron levels were compromised than those of lacto- or lacto-ovo-vegetarian participants.^[82]

The Vegan Society and Vegan Outreach, and others, recommend that vegans either consistently eat foods fortified with B₁₂ or take a B₁₂ supplement.^[83][84][85] Tempeh, seaweed, spirulina, organic produce, soil on unwashed vegetables, and intestinal bacteria have not been shown to be reliable sources of B₁₂ for the dietary needs of vegans.^[86][87][75]

Calcium & Vitamin D

It is recommended that vegans eat three servings per day of a high calcium food, such as fortified soy milk, and take a calcium supplement as necessary.^[71][10] The EPIC-Oxford study showed that vegans have an increased risk of bone fractures over both meat eaters and vegetarians, likely due to lower dietary calcium intake, but that vegans consuming more than the UK's estimated average requirements for calcium of 525 mg/day had risk of bone fractures similar to other groups.^[72][88]

The authors of The China Study argue that osteoporosis is linked to the consumption of animal protein because animal protein, unlike plant protein, increases the acidity of blood and tissues which is then neutralized by calcium pulled from the bones.^[89] The authors add that "in our rural China Study, where the animal to plant ratio [for protein] was about 10%, the fracture rate is only one-fifth that of the U.S."^[90]

For light skinned people, adequate amounts of vitamin D may also be obtained by spending 15 to 30 minutes in the sunlight every few days. Dark skinned people need significantly more sunlight to obtain the same amount of vitamin D, and sunlight exposure may be difficult for vegans in areas with low levels of sunlight during winter; in these cases supplementation is recommended.^[76][91][78] Mushrooms are one of the few sources of Vitamin D suitable for vegans.

Iodine

Iodine supplementation may be necessary for vegans in countries where salt is not typically iodized, where it is iodized at low levels, or where, as in Britain or Ireland, animal products are used for iodine delivery.^[83][73] Iodine can be obtained from most vegan multivitamins or from regular consumption of kelp.^[83][73]

Pregnancies and children

According to the US National Institute of Health, "with appropriate food choices, vegan diets can be adequate for children at all ages."^[92] The American Dietetic Association also considers well-planned vegan diets "appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including pregnancy and lactation,"^[10] but recommends that vegan mothers supplement for iron, vitamin D, and vitamin B₁₂.^[93][94] Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency in lactating vegetarian mothers has been linked to deficiencies and neurological disorders in their children.^[95][96] Some research suggests that the essential omega-3 fatty acid α-linolenic acid and its derivatives should also be supplemented in pregnant and lactating vegan mothers, since they are very low in most vegan diets, and the metabolically related docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is essential to the developing visual system.^[97] A maternal vegan diet has also been associated with low birth weight,^[98] and a five times lower likelihood of having twins than those who eat animal products.^[99]

Several cases of severe infant malnutrition and some fatalities have been associated with a poorly planned vegan diet,^{[100][101][102]} and provoked criticism of vegan diets for children.^[103][104] Parents involved in these cases were convicted on charges ranging from assault to felony murder. Addressing criticism of veganism, Dr. Amy Lanou, an expert witness for the prosecution in one of the cases, asserted that the child "was not killed by a vegan diet" but that "the real problem was that he was not given enough food of any sort."^[105]

Eating disorders

The American Dietetic Association indicates that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders but that the evidence suggests that the adoption of a vegetarian diet does not lead to eating disorders, rather that "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder."^[10] Other studies and statements by dietitians and counselors support this conclusion.^{[106][107][108]}.

Resources and the environment

Cattle - especially when kept on enormous feedlots such as this one - have been shown as a contributing factor in the rise in greenhouse gas emissions.

Main article: Environmental vegetarianism

People who adopt veganism for environmental reasons do so on the basis that veganism consumes far fewer resources and causes less environmental damage than an animal-based diet.^{[109][110][111]} Animal agriculture is linked to climate change, water pollution, land degradation, and a decline in biodiversity.^{[112][111][113]} Additionally, an animal-based diet uses more land,^[113][114] water,^[115] and energy than a vegan diet.^{[113][116][117]}

A 2006 study by Gidon Eshel and Pamela Martin, assistant professors of geophysics at the University of Chicago, found that a person switching from the average American diet to a vegan diet would reduce CO₂ emissions by 1,485 kg per year.^[118]

The growing demand for meat in developing countries may be aggravating the greenhouse gas spiral.

The United Nations released a report in November 2006 linking animal agriculture to environmental damage. The report, Livestock's Long Shadow ^[119] concludes that the livestock sector (primarily cows, chickens, and pigs) emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to our most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global. It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases - responsible for 18% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO₂ equivalents. In comparison, the proportion of total CO₂ emissions by passenger vehicles is 12% of the total CO₂.^[120] It produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO₂) and 37% of all human-induced methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO₂).

The International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis argues that while most meat production in industrialized countries uses inefficient grain feeding methods through intensive farming, meat production is not invariably a poor use of land, especially in countries like China and Brazil. Since a proportion of all grain crops produced are not suitable for human consumption, they can be fed to animals to turn into meat, thus improving efficiency.^[121][122] Nevertheless this does not apply to the majority of grain crops worldwide, but only to small parts of them in developing countries.^{citation needed} Further, greenhouse gas emissions are not limited to animal husbandry; but also to several plant based sources such as rice cultivation.^[123][124]

A 2007 study which simulated various diets' land use for the geography of New York State concluded that although vegetarian diets used the smallest amount of land per capita, a diet which included some meat and dairy—though significantly less than consumed by the average American—could support more people on the same available land, since animal food crops can be grown on lower quality land than crops for human consumption.^[125][126]

Interestingly, some of the vegan food substitutes like soy which are used to produce soymilk amongst other items are partly blamed for the deforestation of rainforests.^[127][128] However, massive amounts of soy are used as animal feed rather than for direct human consumption.

Similar diets and lifestyles

Sample of vegan Buddhist cuisine from a Zen temple in Japan.

See also: Vegetarianism and religion

Diets such as raw veganism and fruitarianism are related to veganism, but have significant differences from standard veganism. There are also numerous religious groups that regularly or occasionally practice a similar diet, including adherents to some Buddhist traditions,^[129] Eastern Orthodox Christians,^[130] Jains,^[131] Hindus,^[132] Sikhism, Rastafarians,^[133] and Seventh-day Adventists.^[134]

Cuisine

A vegan raspberry pear tart.

See also: Vegetarian cuisine

Also see the Wikibooks Cookbook articles on vegan cuisine and vegan substitutions and its listing of vegan recipes.

The cuisines of most nations contain dishes suitable for a vegan diet, including ingredients such as tofu, tempeh and the wheat product seitan in Asian diets.^{[135][136][137][138]} Many recipes that traditionally contain animal products can be adapted by substituting plant-based ingredients. For example, nut, grain or soy milks can be used to replace cow's milk^[138][139] and eggs can be replaced by applesauce or commercial starch-based substitute products, depending upon the recipe.^{[138][139][140]} Additionally, artificial "meat" products ("analogs" or "mock meats") made from non-animal derived ingredients such as soy, gluten, or mycoprotein, including imitation sausages, ground beef, burgers, and chicken nuggets are widely available.^[138][141]

See also

• Farm Sanctuary
• List of vegans
• Raw veganism
• Vegan Prisoners Support Group (VPSG)

References