USS Constitution
This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "USS_Constitution".

USS Constitution under sail in Massachusetts Bay, July 21, 1997.
Career (USA)
Namesake:	United States Constitution[1]
Awarded:	1 March 1794[2]
Builder:	Edmund Hartt's Shipyard[2]
Cost:	$302,718 (1797 dollars)[3]
Laid down:	1 November 1794[2]
Launched:	October 21, 1797[2]
Sponsored by:	Captain James Sever[1]
Christened:	October 21, 1797[1]
Maiden voyage:	23 July 1798[1]
Renamed:	Old Constitution 1917, Constitution 1925[2]
Reclassified:	IX-21 1941; No classification, 1 September 1975[2]
Refit:	1807, 1815, 1835, 1871, 1905, 1927, 1970, 1995
Homeport:	Charlestown Navy Yard[3]
Nickname:	"Old Ironsides"[1]
Status:	Active in service as of 2008
General characteristics as built
Class and type:	44 Gun Frigate
Displacement:	2,200 tons[3]
Length:	204 ft (62 m) (billet head to taffrail); 175 ft (53 m) at waterline[3]
Beam:	43 ft 6 in (13.3 m)[3]
Height:	foremast, 198 ft (60 m) mainmast, 220 ft (67 m); mizzenmast,172.5 ft (52.6 m)[3]
Draft:	23 feet 6 inches (7.2 m)
Depth of hold:	14 ft 3 in (4.3 m)[1]
Decks:	Orlop, Berth, Gun, Spar
Propulsion:	Sail (three masts, ship rig)
Sail plan:	42,710 ft² (3,968 m²) on three masts[3]
Speed:	13 kn (15 mph 24 km/h)[1]
Boats and landing craft carried:	1 × 36 ft (11 m) longboat, 2 × 30 ft (9 m) cutters, 2 × 28 ft (9 m) whaleboats, 1 × 28 ft (9 m) gig, 1 × 22 ft (7 m) jolly boat, 1 × 14 ft (4 m) punt[3]
Complement:	450 officers and enlisted, including 55 Marines and 30 boys[3]
Armament:	30 × 24 pounder (11 kg) long gun, 20 × 32 pounder (15 kg) carronade, 2 × 24 pounder (11 kg) bow chasers[3]
Armor:	Copper sheathing
Anchors:	2 x main bowers 5,300 lb (2,400 kg) 1 x sheet anchor 5,400 lb (2,400 kg) 1 x stream anchor 1,100 lb (500 kg) 2 x kedge anchors 400–700 lb (180–320 kg)[3]

USS Constitution, known as "Old Ironsides," is a wooden-hulled, three-masted heavy frigate of the United States Navy. Named after the United States Constitution, she is the oldest commissioned ship afloat in the world. The Constitution was one of the six original frigates authorized for construction by the Naval Act of 1794 and was launched in 1797. Joshua Humphreys designed them to be the Navy's capital ships and so Constitution and her sisters were larger and more heavily armed than the standard frigates of the period.

The modern day role of "Old Ironsides" is that of "ship of state". The crew of 55 sailors participates in ceremonies, educational programs and special events (including sail drill) while keeping the ship open to visitors year-round and providing free tours. The crew are all active-duty sailors in the Navy and the assignment is considered a special duty. Traditionally, the duty of captain of the vessel is assigned to an active duty Navy commander.

Construction

In the period from August 1785 when Alliance, the last fighting ship of the Continental Navy was sold until 1797, the United States only armed maritime service was the Revenue Marine founded in 1790 at the prompting of Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. During the 1790s American merchant shipping began to be harassed by France and pirates from the Barbary Coast area, most notably Algiers, and America began thinking about constructing a force to defend her merchant marine.^[4][5][6]

In late 1792 Secretary of War Henry Knox requested from different shipbuilders to submit ideas and plans to build six vessels. The plans of Joshua Humphreys^[7], a naval architect and draftsman Josiah Fox were accepted in 1793. Humphreys' design was unique for the time because of diagonal cross-bracing of the ship's skeleton which contributed considerably to the ship's structural strength by preventing hogging. He had also specified the use of the most durable materials available.^[8]

The Naval Act of 1794, passed by the United States Congress provided for the construction of four ships to carry forty-four guns each, and two ships to carry thirty-six guns each. The third forty-four gun frigate of the six was named Constitution by President George Washington.^[9]

The keel of Constitution was laid down on 1 November 1794 at Edmund Hartt's shipyard in Boston, Massachusetts under the supervision of Captain Samuel Nicholson, who had commanded the frigate Deane during the Revolutionary War^[10] and Naval Constructor George Claghorn.^[11] Primary materials used in her building were white pine; yellow pine; white oak and most importantly southern live oak that was cut and milled at Gascoigne Bluff in St. Simons, Georgia. Southern live oak can weigh up to 75 pounds per cubic foot and her hull would be 21 in (530 mm) thick in an era when 18 in (460 mm) was normally used. Paul Revere forged the copper sheathing that was installed to protect the hull along with copper bolts and breasthooks.^[3][8][12]

In March 1796, as construction of Constitution slowly progressed, a peace accord was announced between the United States and the Dey of Algiers and in accordance with section nine of the Naval Act of 1794, her construction was halted. After some debate and prompting by President Washington, Congress agreed to continue to fund the construction of only the three frigates nearest to completion: United States,^[13] Constellation^[14] and Constitution.^[15]

Constitution's launching ceremony on 20 September 1797 was attended by then President John Adams and the Governor of Massachusetts Increase Sumner. Upon launch, she only slid down the ways 27 feet (8.2 m) before stopping. Her weight had caused the ways to settle into the ground preventing further movement. An attempt two days later only resulted in an additional 31 feet (9.4 m) of travel before stopping on the ways. After a month of rebuilding the ways, she finally slipped into Boston Harbor on 21 October 1797 with Captain James Sever breaking a bottle of Madeira wine on her bowsprit. Sever would command Congress upon her launch two years later.^[16][17][18]

Her fitting-out was delayed through the winter and early spring of 1798 due to weather and a Congressional investigation into the reasons surrounding the construction of the six frigates, which had overrun their budgets and original estimated completion time. By now, France had seized over 300 American merchant vessels and the latest diplomatic mission had resulted in the XYZ Affair prompting Congress to approve funds for completion of the remaining three frigates President,^[19]Congress^[18] and Chesapeake.^[20] Captain Nicholson was authorized to recruit sailors and midshipman to serve in Constitution but found great difficulty in doing so. The Naval Agent at Boston had offered the explanation for low interest from recruits as describing Nicholson to be "a rough, blustering tar merely, a man whose noise and vanity is disgusting to the sailors".^[8]

President Adams had ordered all US Navy ships to sea in late May to patrol for armed ships of France and to free any American ship captured by France. Constitution was still not ready to sail; eventually having to borrow sixteen 18-pound cannons from Castle Island before finally being readied.^[21]

Quasi-War

Main article: Quasi-War

Once armed, Constitution put to sea on the evening of 22 July 1798 with orders to patrol the Eastern Seaboard between New Hampshire and New York. A month later she was patrolling the Chesapeake Bay to Savannah, Georgia area when Nicholson found his first opportunity for capturing a prize off the coast of Charleston on September 8 when he intercepted the Niger, a 24-gun ship sailing with a French crew from Jamaica to Philadelphia claiming to have been under the orders of Great Britain.^[21]

Perhaps not understanding his orders correctly, Nicholson had the crewmen imprisoned and placed a prize crew aboard the Niger and brought her into Norfolk. Constitution sailed south again a week later to escort a merchant convoy but her bowsprit was damaged severely in a gale requiring her return to Boston for repairs. In the meantime, Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert had determined the Niger was operating under Great Britain as claimed and the ship and her crew were released to continue their voyage with the American government paying a restitution of $11,000 to Great Britain.^[22]

Departing Boston on 29 December Nicholson was to report to Commodore John Barry near the island of Dominica for patrols in the West Indies. On 15 January 1799 Constitution intercepted the English merchantman Spencer that had been taken prize by the French frigate L'Insurgente^[23] a few days prior. Technically, Spencer was a French ship operated by a French prize crew but Nicholson, perhaps hesitant after the affair with the Niger released the ship and its crew the next morning.^[21][22]

Joining Barry's command from the United States, Constitution almost immediately had to put in for repairs to her rigging as they were damaged in a storm and it was not until 1 March that anything of note occurred when she encountered the HMS Santa Margaretta of whom Nicholson^[24] was acquainted with her Captain. The two agreed to a sailing duel in which the English Captain was confident he would win but after 11 hours of sailing the next day the Santa Margaretta finally lowered her sails and admitted defeat paying her reward of a cask of wine to Nicholson. Resuming her patrols, Constitution managed to recapture the American sloop Neutrality 27 March and a few days later the French ship Carteret however Secretary Stoddert had other plans and recalled Constitution back to Boston. She arrived there 14 May and Nicholson was relieved of command.^{[16][21][22][25]}

Change of command

Captain Silas Talbot who had served in the Continental Navy was recalled to duty for the command of Constitution as the Commodore of operations in the West Indies. After repairs and resupply were completed Constitution departed Boston 23 July with a destination of Saint-Domingue via Norfolk to interrupt French shipping. She took the prize Amelia from a French prize crew on 15 September and Talbot sent it back to New York City with an American prize crew. She arrived at Saint-Domingue 15 October and rendezvoused with the Boston,^[26] General Greene,^[27] and Norfolk.^[28] Nothing much of note would occur over the next six months as French hostilities in the area had declined. Constitution busied herself with routine patrols and the occasional sailing contests with Boston and other ships of the squadron.^[21][22]

It wasn't until April 1800 that Talbot investigated increasing ship traffic near Puerto Plata, Santo Domingo and discovered the French privateer Sandwich had taken refuge there. On 8 May the squadron captured the sloop Sally and Talbot hatched his plan to capture the Sandwich utilizing the familiarity of Sally to allow the American's access to the harbor. First Lieutenant Isaac Hull on 11 May led 90 sailors and Marines into Puerto Plata without a challenge capturing the Sandwich and spiking the guns of the nearby Spanish fort. However, it would later be determined that Sandwich had been captured from a neutral port and returned to the French with apologies and no prize money was awarded to the squadron.^{[16][22][25][29]}

Routine patrols would again occupy Constitution for the next two months until 13 July when the mainmast trouble of a few months prior returned requiring that she put into Cap Francois for repairs. With the term of enlistments soon to expire for the sailors aboard her, she made preparations for return to the United States being relived from duty by the Constellation^[14] on 23 July. Constitution set out on her return voyage escorting twelve merchantmen to Philadelphia and herself putting into Boston on 24 August were she received new masts, sails and rigging.^[22]

Even with peace imminent for the United States and France Constitution again sailed for the West Indies on 17 December as squadron flagship rendezvousing with Congress,^[18]Adams,^[30]Augusta,^[31]Richmond,^[32] and Trumbull.^[33] Although no longer allowed to pursue French shipping the squadron was assigned to protect American shipping and continued in that capacity until April 1801 when Herald^[34] arrived with orders for the squadron to return to the United States. Constitution returned to Boston where she lingered; finally being scheduled for an overhaul in October which was later canceled. She was placed in ordinary on 16 June 1802.^[25][22]

First Barbary War

Main article: First Barbary War

In response to Yussif Karamanli, the Pasha of Tripoli's 1801 demand for $225,000 in tribute from the United States, Thomas Jefferson sent a group of frigates to defend American interests in the Mediterranean. The first squadron had been under the command of Richard Dale in the President^[19] and the second under the command of Richard Valentine Morris in the Chesapeake.^[20] Both squadrons had been unsuccessful in blockading shipping of the Barbary States leading to the dismissal of Morris in 1803.^[8][22][21]

Captain Edward Preble, arrived at the Boston Navy Yard on 13 May 1803 to recommission Constitution as his flagship and make preparations for a new squadron and the third blockade attempt. Constitution required the copper sheathing on her hull replaced and it was the first of many times that Paul Revere^[35] would supply the copper sheets necessary for the job.^[36][37] Constitution departed Boston on 14 August and on 6 September near the Rock of Gibraltar encountered an unknown ship in the darkness. Constitution went to quarters then ran alongside of her. Preble hailed the unknown ship only to receive a hail in return. After identifying as the United States frigate Constitution he received the same question again. Preble, losing his patience said: "I am now going to hail you for the last time. If a proper answer is not returned, I will fire a shot into you." "If you give me a shot, I'll give you a broadside," the stranger returned. Asking once more, Preble demanded an answer. "This is His Britannic Majesty's ship Donegal, 84 guns, Sir Richard Strachan, an English commodore. Send your boat on board." came the reply. Preble, now devoid of all patience exclaimed "This is United States ship Constitution, 44 guns, Edward Preble, an American commodore, who will be damned before he sends his boat on board of any vessel." And then to his gun crews: "Blow your matches, boys!"^[38] Before things could be carried any further, however, a boat arrived from the ship and a British lieutenant relayed his Captain's apologies. The ship was the HMS Maidstone, a 32-gun frigate that Constitution had got alongside of so quietly they had delayed answering with the proper hail while readying their guns. This was an act that began the strong allegiance between Preble and the officers under his command, known as "Preble's boys" as he had shown he was willing to defy a ship of the line.^{[8][21][22][25]}

Arriving at Gibraltar 12 September, Preble awaited the other ships of the squadron to arrive. His first order of business was to arrange a treaty with the Emperor of Morocco who was holding American ships hostage to ensure the return of two vessels the Americans had captured. Departing Gibraltar 3 October, Constitution and Nautilus^[39] arrived at Tangiers on the 4th and by the next day Adams^[30] and New York^[40] had arrived. With four American warships in his harbor, the Emperor was more than glad to arrange the transfer of ships between the two nations and Preble departed with his squadron 14 October headed back to Gibraltar.^[8][22][25]

Battle of Tripoli Harbor

Main article: Battle of Tripoli Harbor

Burning of the frigate Philadelphia in the harbor of Tripoli, February 16, 1804.

On 31 October Philadelphia,^[41] under the command of William Bainbridge, ran aground off Tripoli while pursuing a Tripoline vessel. The crew were taken as prisoners and Philadelphia was refloated by the Tripolines and brought into their harbor. Preble prepared to scuttle Philadelphia again using the captured ship Mastico. She was renamed Intrepid^[42] and under the command of Stephen Decatur entered Tripoli Harbor on 16 February 1804 quickly overpowering the Tripoline crew and then setting Philadelphia ablaze.^{[8][16][25][22]}

Constitution patrolled the North African coast for two years after the war ended, commanded by Stephen Decatur and two other captains between 1803 and 1805, to enforce the terms of the treaty. She returned to Boston in 1807 for two years of refitting. The ship was recommissioned as flagship of the North Atlantic Squadron in 1809 under Commodore John Rodgers.

War of 1812

Main article: War of 1812

On 12 May 1811 Constitution's sister ship President became involved in what would be known as the Little Belt Affair when she fired upon the HMS Little Belt off the coast of North Carolina. This would increase tensions between the United States and the United Kingdom leading up to the war.^[19]

Constitution outruns a British Squadron, July 1812.

By early 1812, relations with the United Kingdom had further deteriorated and the US Navy began preparing for war, which was declared 20 June. Captain Isaac Hull, who had been appointed Constitution’s commanding officer in 1810, put to sea 12 July, without orders, to prevent being blockaded in port. His intention was to join the five ships of Rodgers' squadron.

Constitution sighted five ships off Egg Harbor, New Jersey, July 17. By the following morning the lookouts had determined they were a British squadron that had sighted Constitution and were giving chase. Finding themselves becalmed, Hull and his seasoned crew put boats over the side to tow their ship out of range. By using kedge anchors to draw the ship forward, and wetting the sails down to take advantage of every breath of wind, Hull slowly made headway against the pursuing British. After two days and nights of toil in the relentless July heat, Constitution finally eluded her pursuers.^[4]

Locked in combat, Constitution brings down Guerriere’s mizzenmast

But one month later on August 19, she met with one of them again—the smaller frigate HMS Guerriere off the coast of Nova Scotia. The British frigate opened fire upon entering range of Constitution. Captain Hull held his ship's guns in check until the two warships were a mere 25 yards apart, at which point he ordered a full broadside. Over the course of the engagement, the ships collided three times but musket fire from the Marine complements on both Guerriere and Constitution prevented boarding parties from being sent. During the third and final collision, Guerriere’s bowsprit became entangled in Constitution’s rigging. When the two ships pulled apart, the force of extracting the bowsprit sent shockwaves through Guerriere’s rigging. Her foremast soon collapsed and it took the mainmast down with it shortly afterward. At the conclusion of the engagement Guerriere was a dismasted hulk, so badly damaged that she was not worth towing to port. Hull had used his heavier broadsides and his ship's superior sailing ability, while the British, to their astonishment, saw that their shot seemed to rebound harmlessly off Constitution’s strong live oak hull—giving her the nickname "Old Ironsides".^[43]

Under the command of William Bainbridge, "Old Ironsides" met HMS Java, another British frigate, in December. A cannon shot from Java destroyed the helm, killing four helmsmen and wounding Bainbridge. Bainbridge then directed Constitution to be steered manually from the tiller for the duration of the battle. After their three-hour engagement left Java unfit for repair, the helm was salvaged and installed on Constitution; Java was then burned.^[12][44]

Despite having to spend many months in port, either under repair or because of blockades, Constitution managed eight more captures under the command of Charles Stewart, including a British frigate, HMS Cyane, and a sloop, HM Sloop Levant, sailing in company which she fought and defeated simultaneously, before she returned to port in 1815 to find the war had ended. She would then spend the next six years in ordinary.

While Constitution had emerged from the war undefeated, her sister ships Chesapeake and President were not so fortunate as both ships had been captured in 1813 and 1815 respectively. By 1820 they had been sold and broken up for their timbers. Chesapeake's timbers still survive today as part of the Chesapeake Mill.^[19][20][45]

In April 1820 Issac Hull, now the commandant of the Charlestown Navy Yard directed a refitting of Constitution to restore her to seaworthiness. Joshua Humphreys' diagonal riders were removed to make room for two iron freshwater tanks and timbers below the waterline along with the copper sheathing were replaced. Constitution was also subjected to an unusual experiment where manually operated paddle wheels were fitted to her hull, as steam power was still considered too unreliable for the needs of the US Navy. If stranded by calm seas, the paddle wheels were capable of propelling the ship at up to 3 knots (5.6 km/h) by the crew using the ships capstan. Reportedly Hull and the new commanding officer of Constitution Jacob Jones were unimpressed with paddle wheels on a US Navy ship and Jones had them removed and stowed in the cargo hold before he departed 13 May 1821 for a three year tour of duty in the Mediterranean.^[21]

Constitution returned to duty as flagship of the Mediterranean Squadron with Commodore Jones in command. She sailed back to Boston in 1828.

Old Ironsides

An examination in 1830 found her unfit for sea, but the American public expressed great indignation at the recommendation that she be scrapped, especially after publication of Oliver Wendell Holmes' poem "Old Ironsides". Congress passed an appropriation for reconstruction and in 1835 she was placed back in commission.

The Andrew Jackson figurehead of Constitution.

During her refit the commandant of the Boston Navy Yard had installed a new figurehead of then President Andrew Jackson under the bowsprit which became a subject of much controversy due to Jackson being politically unpopular in Boston at the time. With only a lone Marine guard aboard her, a merchant Captain named Samuel Dewey under the cover of a thunderstorm, crossed the Charles River in a small boat and sawed off the figurehead. Dewey personally returned the figurehead to Secretary of the Navy Mahlon Dickerson where it remained on Dickerson's library shelf for many years. A new figurehead of Jackson was restored immediately afterwards and remained until 1876.^[16][46]

She served as flagship in the Mediterranean and the South Pacific and made a 30-month voyage around the world beginning in March 1844.

In the 1853 - 1855 she patrolled the African coast in search of slavers.

Civil War

In 1860, Constitution was laid up at the Portsmouth Navy Yard for conversion into a training ship and then assigned to the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland. At the outbreak of the American Civil War in April 1861, Constitution was ordered to relocate farther north after threats had been made against her. Several companies of Massachusetts volunteer soldiers were stationed aboard for her protection. The R. R. Cuyler towed her to New York City, where she arrived on April 29. She was subsequently relocated to Newport, Rhode Island, along with the Naval Academy for the duration of the war. Her sister ship United States was abandoned by the Union and then captured by Confederate forces at Norfolk, Virginia, leaving Constitution the only remaining frigate of the original six.^[13][43][47]

In honor of Constitution’s tradition of service, the US Navy bestowed the name New Ironsides on an ironclad that was launched 10 May 1862 as part of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron and participated in the bombardment of Fort Sumter on 7 April 1863. Unfortunately, New Ironsides' naval career was short-lived; she was destroyed by fire on 16 December 1865 while in ordinary at the Philadelphia Navy Yard.^[48]

In August 1865 Constitution moved back to Annapolis, along with the rest of the Naval Academy. During the voyage she was allowed to drop her tow lines from the tug and continue alone under sail. Despite her age, she was recorded running at 9 kn (17 km/h) and arrived at Hampton Roads ten hours ahead of the tug.^[43]

Constitution as a barracks ship ca 1905

Constitution, along with all ships of her type, was rapidly becoming obsolete as a fighting vessel. As early as 1838, steamships had begun to make regular transatlantic crossings and the Battle of Hampton Roads, during the Civil War, had shown the impotence of wooden-hulled warships when faced with ships made of or clad in iron.

After another period of rebuilding in 1871 she, along with the second Constellation, transported artwork and industrial displays for the Paris Exposition of 1878. Upon her return to the United States she served once more as a training ship. Decommissioned in 1882, she was used as a receiving ship at the Portsmouth Navy Yard. She returned to Boston to celebrate her centennial in 1897.^[49]

1925 Restoration and 1930s Tour

A grateful public once again rescued her from imminent destruction in 1905 and she was thereafter partially restored for use as a national museum. In 1917 she was renamed Old Constitution, to free her name for a planned new Lexington-class battlecruiser, USS Constitution (CC-5). Constitution (CC-5) was canceled in 1923 (only 14 percent completed) due to the Washington Naval Treaty^[1].

In 1925 the ship, once again bearing the name Constitution, entered a restoration period at the direction of Secretary of the Navy Curtis D. Wilbur. Wilbur sponsored a campaign to collect pennies from schoolchildren and larger monetary donations from patriotic groups. The 1926 silent film Old Ironsides portrays Constitution during the First Barbary War.^[50][51]

After being recommissioned on July 1, 1931, under the command of Louis J. Gulliver and a crew of sixty, she set out with much celebration and a 21-gun salute in tow by the USS Grebe^[52], for a tour of 90 port cities along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts. However, some controversy had erupted from Navy veterans after comments doubting the ability of the modern Navy to still sail a vessel of her type were made by then Assistant Secretary of the Navy Ernest Jahncke. Jahncke later claimed the schedule of visits on her itinerary didn't allow for potential delays caused by being under sail.^[51]

Nevertheless, her first stop was Portsmouth, New Hampshire, a port well known to her from the War of 1812. She went as far north as Bar Harbor, Maine on the Atlantic coast, through the Panama Canal Zone, and up to Bellingham, Washington on the Pacific Coast. USS Bushnell shared part of the towing duties on the return trip from San Diego to the Canal Zone during March and April 1934. Constitution returned to her home port of Boston in May of 1934 after more than 4.6 million people had visited her during the three-year journey.^{[53] [54]}

In 1940, she was placed in permanent commission, and an act of Congress in 1954 made the Secretary of the Navy responsible for her upkeep. In early 1941, Constitution was assigned the hull classification symbol IX-21 (the "IX" hull code stands for "Unclassified Miscellaneous"), but was reclassified to "none" on 1 September 1975.^[1]

On July 11, 1976, as part of her Bicentennial visit to the United States, Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh came to Boston and toured the ship with Commanding Officer Tyrone G. Martin.^[43] Secretary of the Navy J. William Middendorf presented the queen with a sea chest made from original wood that had been removed from the hull of Constitution during refurbishment in the early 1970s.

In August, 1986 the Constitution was the site of a celebration held to honor the retirement of Rear Admiral Grace Hopper, who received the Defense Distinguished Service Medal, the nations highest non-combat award. At the time of the award, Admiral Hopper was the oldest officer in the United States Navy (age 80), and aboard the oldest ship in the United States Navy (age 189).^[55]

1992-95 Re-fit

USS Constitution salutes USS Ramage, USS Halyburton, and the Blue Angels in Massachusetts Bay on July 21, 1997.

Constitution entered drydock in 1992 for what had been planned as an inspection and minor repair period that turned out to be her most comprehensive structural restoration and repair since she was launched in 1797. Over the 200 years of her career, as her mission had changed from a fighting warship to a training ship including having a barracks structure built on her spar deck, the multiple refittings had removed most of her original construction components and design. As early as 1820 the diagonal riders originally specified by Joshua Humphreys had been removed.^[56]

In 1993 the Naval Historical Center Detachment Boston reviewed Humphreys' original plans and identified five main structural components that were required to prevent hogging of a ships hull as Constitution had at this point 13 in (330 mm) of hog. Using a 1:16 scale model of the ship, they were able to determine that restoring the original components would result in a 10% increase in hull stiffness.^[56]

Using radiography, a technique unavailable during previous reconstruction, 300 scans of the timbers in Constitution were done to find hidden problems otherwise undetectable from the outside. Aided by the United States Forest Service Forest Products Laboratory the repair crew performed Sonic testing to determine the condition of the remaining timbers that may have been rotting from the inside. Some 13 in (330 mm) of hog was removed from her keel by allowing the ship to settle naturally while in drydock.^[57]

The most daunting task was and still remains the procurement of timber in the quantity and sizes needed for the restoration. The city of Charleston, South Carolina donated live oak trees that had been felled by Hurricane Hugo in 1989 and other construction projects in the Southeastern United States. The International Paper Company also donated live oak from its own property.^[57]

The majority of the white oak required by Constitution is raised in "Constitution Grove", a tract of land located at the Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane Division in Indiana. Planning future repair work on Constitution requires allowing the timbers, some sized at up to 21 in (530 mm) enough time to dry properly which can take up to ten years per timber.^[57]

Preparing for sail

On July 21, 1997, as part of her 200th birthday celebration, Constitution set sail for the first time in 116 years. She was towed from her usual berth in Boston en route to an overnight mooring in Marblehead. The visit to Marblehead marked the first time since 1934 that the ship had been absent overnight from its berth in Charlestown. Embarked dignitaries among the approximately 450 personnel onboard included the Secretary of the Navy, Chief of Naval Operations, the Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps (General Richard I. Neal), Senator Kennedy, and Walter Cronkite, an avid sailor. A little more than five nautical miles offshore, the tow line was dropped, and the commanding officer (Commander Mike Beck, USN) ordered her six sails set — (jibs, topsails, and driver). Constitution then sailed unassisted for 40 minutes on a South South East course. With true wind speeds of about 12 knots, the ship attained a top recorded speed of six and a half knots. (See info box picture at top.) While under sail, her modern naval combatant escorts, USS Ramage (DDG-61) and USS Halyburton (FFG-40), rendered Passing Honors to Old Ironsides. The ship was overflown by the Blue Angels, honoring the ship's first sail in over 116 years. Inbound to her permanent berth at Charlestown the following evening, she rendered a 21-gun salute to the nation, abeam Fort Independence (Castle Island) in Boston Harbor.^[58]

Present Day Constitution

Constitution renders a 21-gun salute to the Nation off Fort Independence during her Independence Day turnaround cruise.

The modern day role of "Old Ironsides" is that of "ship of state". USS Constitution is today considered the most famous vessel in American naval history. Her mission is to promote the Navy to millions of visitors and observers each year. The crew of 55 sailors participates in ceremonies, educational programs and special events (including sail drill) while keeping the ship open to visitors year-round and providing free tours. The crew are all active-duty sailors and the assignment is considered special duty in the Navy. Traditionally, the duty of captain of the vessel is assigned to an active duty Navy commander.

While Constitution is the oldest fully commissioned vessel afloat^[59], she is not the oldest commissioned.^[60] HMS Victory holds the honor of being the oldest commissioned warship by three decades, however Victory is permanently drydocked.^[61]

Carronade on the deck of the Constitution

Constitution is one of only six presently commissioned ships in the U.S. Navy known to have sunk an enemy vessel. The other five are USS Simpson (FFG-56)^[62], USS Porter (DDG-78)^[63], USS Carter Hall (LSD-50)^[64][65][66], USS Cape St. George (CG-71) and USS Gonzalez (DDG-66).^{citation needed} She is the only ship in the world on active duty to have sunk an enemy with cannon fire.^{citation needed}

Constitution is berthed at Pier 1 of the former Charlestown Navy Yard at one end of Boston's Freedom Trail. She is open to the public year round. However, as a commissioned U.S. Navy ship, a visit to "Old Ironsides" is subject to Navy provisions and the fact that she occasionally puts out to sea. The private USS Constitution Museum is nearby, located in a restored shipyard building at the foot of Pier 2.

In 2007, the Constitution’s commander, Thomas C. Graves was relieved of command and reassigned after being accused of abusing his subordinates. The charges were settled at a private U.S. Navy hearing on October 26, 2007.^[67]

In October, Constitution entered a period of repair expected to last until September 2009. During this time the entire spar deck will be stripped down to the support beams and the current Douglas fir decking will be restored to its original wood that consisted of white oak and yellow pine. The maintenance will also restore the original camber to the deck which will allow water to wash overboard and not remain standing on the deck areas. Constitution will remain open for visitors but there will be no turnaround cruises.^[68][69]

In November, Lieutenant Commander John Scivier of the Royal Navy, commanding officer of the HMS Victory, paid a visit to Constitution touring the local facilities with Commander William A. Bullard III, "Old Ironsides" commanding officer. Both officers discussed the idea to arrange an exchange program between the two ships.^[70]

Constitution in literature, film, and popular culture

USS Constitution underway for her annual turn around cruise

• C. S. Forester's Hornblower and the Hotspur has Constitution berthed at Cadiz, Spain in 1803 during the mission against the Barbary States, where she plays a role in the "Doughty" subplot.^[71]

• Constitution’s action against HMS Java appears in Patrick O'Brian's book The Fortune of War.^[72][73]

• In the movie, Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World, the fictional French frigate Acheron was computer modeled after the Constitution, using a stem to stern digital image scan of the real Old Ironsides.^[73]

• Space Shuttle Enterprise (OV-101) was originally planned to have been named Constitution.^[74]

• In the fictional Star Trek universe there are Constitution class starships.^[75]

• Secretary of the Navy John H. Dalton gave a speech including an anecdote about Old Ironsides where he described the voracious drinking habits of sailors during the War of 1812.^[76]

References