Tibeto-Burman language
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The Tibeto-Burman family of languages (often considered a sub-group of the Sino-Tibetan language family) is spoken in various central and south Asian countries, including Myanmar (Burma), Tibet, northern Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, parts of central China (Guizhou, Hunan), northern parts of Nepal, north-eastern parts of Bangladesh, Bhutan, western Pakistan (Baltistan), and various regions of India (Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and both the Ladakh and Kargil regions of Jammu and Kashmir).

The subfamily includes approximately 350 languages; Burmese has the most speakers (approximately 32 million). Approximately 8 million Tibetans and related peoples speak one of several related Tibetan dialects or languages.

Recently George van Driem has advocated elevating "Tibeto-Burman" to displace "Sino-Tibetan" as the top-tier language family, with the Chinese languages (Sinitic) classified as a sub-branch within the Tibeto-Burman/Sino-Tibetan family.^[2] This proposal has not been widely accepted.

Classification

There have been two major classifications: Shafer (1966) and Benedict (1972). Since then, many languages previously inadequately documented have received more attention with the publication of new grammars, dictionaries, and wordlists. This new research has greatly benefited comparative work. Bradley (1997) is a newer classification that incorporates the newer data.

Bradley (1997)

I. Bodic (a.k.a. Western)

A. Bodish

i. Central Bodish (a.k.a. Tibetan)

a. Western Tibetan

b. Central Tibetan

i) Western

ii) mNgaẖris

iii) gTsang

iv) dBus (a.k.a. 'Central' Central Tibetan)

v) Southern Tibetan

c. Amdo Tibetan (a.k.a. Northeastern Tibetan)

d. Khams Tibetan (a.k.a. Southeastern Tibetan)

ii. West Bodish (a.k.a. Gurung, Tamang)

iii. East Bodish (a.k.a. Bumthang)

iv. Tshangla (a.k.a. East Bodic)

v. West Himalayish (a.k.a. Kanauri)

B. Himalayan

i. Central

ii. Kiranti

II. North-East India (a.k.a. Sal)

A. Bodo-Garo

i. Northern Naga

B. Jinghpaw

C. Luish (a.k.a. Sak)

D. Pyu

III. Kuki-Chin

A. Southern Naga

B. Kuki

C. Chin

D. Arleng

IV. Central

A. Lepcha

B. Western Arunachal

C. Adi-Galo-Mishing-Nishi (a.k.a. Abor-Miri-Dafla, Tani group of people believed to be descendants of ABOTANI, first Human being)

D. Digarish 'Mishmi'

E. Keman 'Mishmi'

F. Rawang (a.k.a. Nungish)

V. North-Eastern

VI. South-Eastern

A. Burmese-Lolo (a.k.a. Burmic)

i. Mru

ii. Gong

iii. Burmish

iv. Loloish

a. Northern

b. Central

c. Southern

B. Karen

Benedict (1972)

A very influential classification (although tentative) is that of Benedict (1972). This was a collaborated effort of Paul Benedict and Robert Shafer (completed around 1942-1943) with editing by James Matisoff. This classification puts Tibeto-Burman under a larger Sino-Tibetan phylum:

Sino-Tibetan

1. Chinese
2. Tibeto-Karen
   • Karen
   • Tibeto-Burman

The Tibeto-Burman sub-family is then composed of 7 main branches:

I. Tibetan-Kanauri (a.k.a. Bodish-Himalayish)

A. Bodish (in eastern & southern Tibet)

B. Himalayish

i. "major" Himalayish (in western Tibet, western India)

ii. "minor" Himalayish (in Uttarakhand)

iii. Dzorgai (in Sichuan) ?

iv. Lepcha (in Sikkim) ?

v. Magari (in Nepal) ?

II. Bahing-Vayu (a.k.a. Kiranti) (in Nepal)

A. Bahing

B. Khambu

C. Vayu-Chepang

D. Nepal Bhasa ?

III. Abor-Miri-Dafla (a.k.a. Mirish, North Assam) (in Sikkim, northern Assam)

IV. Kachin (in northern Myanmar)

V. Burmese-Lolo (a.k.a. Burmish) (in Sichuan, Yunnan, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam)

A. Burmese-Maru

B. Southern Lolo

C. Northern Lolo

D. Kanburi Lawa (Kanchanaburi, Thailand)

E. Moso (a.k.a. Nakhi) (in western Yunnan)

F. Hsi-fan (in western Sichuan)

G. Tangut (in northwestern China)

H. Nung ?

VI. Bodo-Garo (a.k.a. Barish) {in northern Assam, northern Myanmar)

A. Bodo

B. Garo

i. Garo A

ii. Garo B

C. "Naked Naga" (a.k.a. Konyak) ?

D. Chairel ?

VII. Kuki-Naga (a.k.a. Kukish) (in southern Assam-Myanmar area)

A. Central Kuki

B. Northern Kuki

C. Old Kuki

D. Southern Kuki

E. Northern Naga

F. Southern Naga

In this classification,

• Bodish includes Tibetan, Gyarung, Takpa, Tsangla, Murmi, and Gurung;
• major Himalayish includes Kanauri, Chitkhuli, Thebor, Kanashi, Rangloi, Bunan, Manchati, Chamba Lahuli, and Zhang-zhung;
• minor Himalayish includes Rangkas, Darmiya, Chaudangsi, and Byangsi.

Dzorgai, Lepcha, and Magari seem to be most similar to the Tibetan-Kanauri branch. Lepcha may be a separate transitional branch like Kachin. Margari is also similar to Bahing-Vayu.

• Bahing includes Sunwari, Dumi, Khaling, and Rai.
• Khambu includes Sangpang, Nachereng, Rodong, Waling, Rungchengbung, Lambichong, Chingtang, Limbu, and Yakha.

Nepal Bhasa (Newari) shares similarities to both Bahing and Khambu. Aka (a.k.a. Hrusso) may belong to Abor-Miri-Dafla. Digaro, Miju, and Dhimal may also be Abor-Miri-Dafla, but this even more uncertain. Kachin seems to be a transitional branch containing features similar to all other branches. Kadu-Andro-Sengmai (a.k.a. Luish) and Taman may belong to Kachin.

• Burmese-Maru includes Phön, Lashi, Atsi, and Achang.
• Southern Lolo includes Phunoi, Akha, Lahu, Black Lolo, White Lolo, and Müng.
• Northern Lolo includes Lisu, Ahi, Nyi, Lolopho, Chöko, Phupha, Ulu, and Independent Lolo.
• Hsi-fan includes Manyak, Horpa, Menia, and Muli.

Nung may belong to Burmese-Lolo, but it also has similarities to Kachin. Pyu is similar to Nung.

• Bodo includes Dimasa.
• Naked Naga includes Banpara, Tableng, Namsang, Tamlu, Moshang, and Chang. Eastern languages of Naked Naga, although similar to Bodo-Garo, have similarities with Kachin.

Deori Chutiya (northern Assam) belongs to Bodo-Garo, although to which sub-group is uncertain.

Shafer (1966-1974)

Unlike Benedict (1972), Shafer's tentative classification does not separate Sino-Tibetan into two branches: Chinese and Tibeto-Burman. Rather, Chinese (Sinitic) is placed on the same level as Benedict's subgroupings of Tibeto-Burman.

Sino-Tibetan:

I. Sinitic

II. Daic

III. Bodic

IV. Burmic

V. Baric

VI. Karenic

Ethnologue

I. Bai

II. Himalayish

A. Mahakiranti

i. Kham-Magar-Chepang-Sunwari

a. Chepang

b. Kham

c. Magar

d. Sunwari

ii. Kiranti

a. Tomyang

b. Eastern

c. Western

iii. Newar

B. Tibeto-Kanauri

i. Dzalakha

ii. Lepcha

iii. Western Himalayish

iv. Tibetic

a. Tshangla

b. Dhimal

c. Tamangic

d. Tibetan

C. Baima (unclassified)

III. Jingpho-Konyak-Bodo

A. Jingpho-Luish

B. Konyak-Bodo-Garo

IV. Karen

A. Pa’o

B. Zayein

C. Pwo

D. Sgaw-Bghai

i. Bghai

ii. Brek

iii. Kayah

iv. Sgaw

E. Zayein Karen (unclassified)

V. Kuki-Chin-Naga

A. Kuki-Chin

i. Central

ii. Northern

iii. Southern

B. Naga

i. Angami-Pochuri

ii. Ao

iii. Tangkhul

iv. unclassified Naga

v. Zeme

VI. Lolo-Burmese

A. Burmish

i. Northern

ii. Southern

iii. unclassified Burmish

B. Loloish

i. Northern

a. Lisu

b. Samei

c. Yi

i. Southern

ii. unclassified Loloish

C. Naxi

D. Phula (unclassified)

VII. Meitei

VIII. Mikir

IX. North Assam

A. Deng

B. Tani

X. Nungish

XI. Tangut-Qiang

A. Qiangic

B. rGyarong

XII. Tujia

XII. unclassified Tibeto-Burman

XIV. West Bodish

XV. Mru

References

Bibliography

• Benedict, Paul K. (1972). Sino-Tibetan: A conspectus. J. A. Matisoff (Ed.). Cambridge: The University Press. ISBN 0-521-08175-0.
• Bradley, David. (1997). Tibeto-Burman languages and classification. In D. Bradley (Ed.), Papers in South East Asian linguistics: Tibeto-Burman languages of the Himalayas (No. 14, pp. 1-71). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
• Shafer, Robert. (1966). Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 1). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
• Shafer, Robert. (1967). Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 2). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
• Shafer, Robert. (1968). Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 3). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
• Shafer, Robert. (1970). Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 4). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
• Shafer, Robert. (1974). Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 5). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.

See also

• Language Families
• List of Tibeto-Burman languages