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Eyeshine
Eyeshine is a visible effect of the tapetum lucidum. When a light is shone into the eye of an animal having a tapetum lucidum, the pupil appears to glow. Eyeshine can be seen in many animals, in nature and in flash photographs. In low light, a hand-held flashlight is sufficient to produce eyeshine that is highly visible to humans (despite our inferior night vision); this technique, spotlighting, is used by naturalists and hunters to search for animals at night. Eyeshine occurs in a wide variety of colors including white, blue, green, yellow, pink and red. However, because eyeshine is a form of iridescence, the color varies slightly with the angle at which it is seen and the color of the source light.
White eyeshine occurs in many fish, especially walleye; blue eyeshine occurs in many mammals such as horses; yellow eyeshine occurs in mammals such as cats, dogs, and raccoons; and red eyeshine occurs in rodents and oppossums.
The human eye has no tapetum lucidum, hence no eyeshine. However, in humans and animals two effects can occur that may resemble eyeshine: leukocoria (white shine, indicative of abnormalities including cataracts, cancers, and other problems) and red-eye effect (red shine).
Blue-eyed cats and dogs
Cats and dogs with blue eyes (see Eye color) may display both eyeshine and red-eye effect. Both species have a tapetum lucidum, so their pupils may display eyeshine. In flash color photographs, however, individuals with blue eyes may also display a distinctive red eyeshine. Individuals with heterochromia may display red eyeshine in the blue eye and "normal" yellow / green / blue eyeshine in the other eye. The red-eye effect is independent of the eyeshine: in some photographs of individuals with a tapetum lucidum and heterochromia, the eyeshine is dim yet the pupil of the blue eye still appears red. This is most apparent when the individual is not looking into the camera, because the tapetum ludicum is far less extensive than the retina.
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Classification
A classification of anatomical variants of tapetum lucidum[2] defines 4 types:
- Retinal tapetum, as seen in teleosts, crocodiles, marsupials and fruit bats. The tapetum lucidum is within the retina; in the other 3 types the tapetum is within the choroid behind the retina.
- Choroidal guanine tapetum, as seen in elasmobranchii (skates, rays, and sharks). The tapetum is a palisade of cells containing stacks of flat hexagonal crystals of guanine.[3]
- Choroidal tapetum cellulosum, as seen in carnivores, rodents and cetacea. The tapetum consists of layers of cells containing organized, highly refractive crystals. These crystals are diverse in shape and makeup.
- Choroidal tapetum fibrosum, as seen in cows, sheep, goats and horses. The tapetum is an array of extracellular fibers.
The functional differences between these 4 different types of tapetum lucidum are not known.[2]
Like humans, some animals (some primates, squirrels, birds, red kangaroo and pig[4]) do not have a tapetum lucidum and they usually are diurnal.[2] When a tapetum lucidum is present, its location on the eyeball varies with the placement of the eyeball in the head:[5], such that in all cases the tapetum lucidum enhances night vision in the center of the animal's field of view.
Apart from its eyeshine, the tapetum luminum itself has a color. It is often described as iridescent. In tigers it is greenish.[6] In ruminants it may be golden green with a blue periphery,[4] or whitish or pale blue with a lavender periphery. In dogs it may be whitish with a blue periphery.[4]
Mechanism
The tapetum lucidum, which is iridescent, reflects light roughly on the interference principles of thin-film optics, as seen in other iridescent tissues. However, the tapetum lucidum cells are leucophores, not iridophores.
The tapetum lucidum is a retroreflector of the transparent sphere type. Because it is a retroreflector, it reflects light directly back along the light path. This serves to match the original and reflected light, thus maintaining the sharpness and contrast of the image on the retina. The tapetum lucidum reflects with constructive interference[3], thus increasing the quantity of light passing through the retina. In the cat, the tapetum lucidum lowers the minimum threshold of vision 6-fold, allowing the cat to see light that is invisible to human eyes.[7]
Uses
The tapetum lucidum enables an animal equipped with it to see better in low light than humans do. This is of use to the animal, but it is of use also to humans. Human uses include scanning for reflected eyeshine to detect and identify the species of animals in the dark, and deploying trained search dogs and search horses at night. Historically, its function was regarded as simply to increase the light intensity of an image on the retina.[8]
Using eyeshine to identify animals in the dark employs not only its color but also several other features. The color corresponds approximately to the type of tapetum lucidum, with some variation between species. Other features include the distance between pupils relative to their size; the height above ground; the manner of blinking (if any); and the movement of the eyeshine (bobbing, weaving, hopping, leaping, climbing, flying).
Manufactured retroreflectors modeled after a tapetum lucidum are described in numerous patents and today have many uses. The earliest patent, first used in "Catseye" brand raised pavement markers, was inspired by the tapetum lucidum of a cat's eye (see Cat's eye (road)). A more recent use of retroreflectors, helping to provide secure communications between two stations in line of sight, is modeled after the combination of tapetum lucidum and bioluminescent "flashlight" in flashlight fish of the families Anomalopidae and Stomiidae (see Retroreflector). Some of these fish have been shown[9] to use eyeshine both to communicate and to detect other flashlight fish.
Pathology
In dogs, certain drugs are known to disturb the precise organization of the crystals of the tapetum lucidum, thus compromise the dog's ability to see in low light. These drugs include ethambutol, macrolide antibiotics, dithizone, antimalarial compounds, some receptor H(sub)2-antagonists, and cardiovascular agents. The disturbance "is attributed to the chelating action which removes zinc from the tapetal cells."[10]
See also
External links
References
- ^ Latin Word Lookup
- ^ a b c Ollivier FJ, Samuelson DA, Brooks DE, Lewis PA, Kallberg ME, Komáromy AM (2004). "Comparative morphology of the tapetum lucidum (among selected species)". Vet Ophthalmol 7 (1): 11–22. doi:. PMID 14738502.
- ^ a b Locket NA (July 1974). "The choroidal tapetum lucidum of Latimeria chalumnae". Proc. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. 186 (084): 281–90. PMID 4153107.
- ^ a b c Orlando Charnock Bradley, 1896, Outlines of Veterinary Anatomy. Part I. The Anterior and Posterior Limbs, Baillière, Tindall & Cox, page 224. Free full text on Google Books
- ^ Lee, Henry (1886) On the Tapetum Lucidum, Med Chir Trans. 69: 239–245. Free full text in Pubmed Central
- ^ Fayrer, Sir Joseph (1889) The deadly wild beasts of India, pages 218–240 in James Knowls (ed) The Nineteenth Century: A Monthly Review, Henry S. King & Co., v.26; page 219. Full free text on Google Books
- ^ PMID 14875072
- ^ Dunglison, Robley (1854) Medical lexicon, Blanchard and Lea, 903 pages, page 843. Free full text in Google Books
- ^ Howland HC, Murphy CJ, McCosker JE (April 1992). "Detection of eyeshine by flashlight fishes of the family Anomalopidae". Vision Res. 32 (4): 765–9. doi:. PMID 1413559.
- ^ Target Organ Toxicity By Gerald M. Cohen, 1986 CRC Press,240 pages ISBN:0849357764 [1] page 121-122
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