Survival manual
This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Survival_manual".

This article or section contains instructions, advice, or how-to content. The purpose of Wikipedia is to present facts, not to teach subject matter. Please help improve this article by removing or rewriting the how-to content, which may qualify for a move to Wikiversity, http://www.wikihow.com/, or http://howto.wikia.com/.

Survival skills are techniques a person may utilize for an indefinite duration in order to survive a dangerous situation (also see bushcraft). Generally speaking, these techniques are meant to provide the basic necessities of human life: shelter, water, and food. They may prove useful in situations such as storm or earthquake, or in dangerous locations such as desert, mountains, and jungle. Every different situation or location presents a different range of dangers - (see hazards of outdoor activities). An environment may be dry, wet, hot, cold, high altitude, low altitude, desert, rural, urban, wilderness, subterranean, or an island. Techniques exist to fit most situations. Examples of survival skills include:

• lighting and maintaining a fire
• finding/creating shelter
• finding/preparing potable water
• finding and identifying food
• treating injuries
• climbing, hiking, and swimming
• using specific or makeshift tools
• signaling for rescue
• tracking mental awareness/emotional status

Developments in outdoor equipment and survival techniques have skewed the scale towards man - if he is prepared. However, there is nothing to replace experience in a survival situation. Those who are most prepared physically and mentally stand the greatest chance of survival.

Two prisoners who are trying to escape from Gulag through Taiga without any food or clothing. Painting by Nikolai Getman, provided by Jamestown Foundation

Survival priorities

Human survival priorities are found in the "Rule of Three":^[1][2]

1. Humans cannot survive more than three hours exposed to extreme low-temperature
2. Humans cannot survive more than three days without water (H₂0)
3. Humans cannot survive more than three weeks without food

The Rule of Three should be viewed as generalities. The crew of a lifeboat reportedly lasted 8 days without water; people have survived without food for over 40 days.

The Boy Scouts of America teaches seven priorities for survival in an emergency situation:

1. Positive mental attitude—stay calm and don't panic.
2. First aid—treatment of yourself or others for life-threatening or dangerous conditions (bleeding, shock, dehydration, hypothermia, etc.)
3. Shelter—protecting yourself from the elements
4. Fire—for warmth and signaling
5. Signaling—communicating with searchers or others in the area
6. Water
7. Food

Shelter

A shelter is any structure that is built to protect a person from his environment. A shelter can provide solace during potentially disastrous weather, help prevent hypothermia, and allow restful sleep. It may also help boost the emotional state of a survivor, as it will become a base or home. In typical survival situations a shelter is designed to allow movability and expedient set-up, thus allowing the survivor to focus on other necessary tasks such as those that involve food, water, fire, and rescue.

Airmen of the United States Air Force construct a survival shelter during Arctic Survival Training in Alaska.

Among other things, a shelter should provide a comfortable place to sleep. To this end, it should account for the following:

• Immovable rocks, animal nests, and other obstacles and hazards should be avoided.
• Dry watercourses may be flat, sandy, and comfortable to sleep on, but they will flood in a storm.
• Sunlight provides warmth (which is not always welcome), and can help one to wake up in the morning. However, sunny, open areas are vulnerable to wind which causes convection of one's body heat.
• Heat transfer: an excessively large or well-ventilated shelter will not retain warmth well.
• Flashing (weatherproofing) to provide protection from elements.

Examples of Shelter:

• A cave can provide a very useful shelter because it can provide protection from wind, rain and snow, and maintains a constant internal temperature. Unfortunately, caves can also present problems such as ground water, dampness, disease, and wildlife. Histoplasmosis, Blastomycosis, and Coccidiomycosis are types of fungi found in caves that can infect the eyes and lungs of humans. Bird and bat droppings are prevalent sources of these fungi. Likewise, bats often roost in caves and, through their bite, they can transmit rabies and other terminal illnesses. Bears and other predators can also make caves uninhabitable.

• The simplest and most mobile shelter is a tarp supported by make-shift frame work or rope. Vegetation such as fern or fir branches can be made into a latticework frame for a tarp. Branches propped against a fallen tree make a simple and effective refuge, but creatures such as ants and snakes may nest under the tree. Ferns on a shelter provide insect repellent.

• A more advanced shelter is known as a debris shelter, which can be constructed without modern tools or implements. It consists of a central ridge pole supported by two forked poles. This ridge pole supports a latticework of branches, which is then finished by leaves or other insulating material. There are many variants on this type of shelter, while some contain only one forked pole with the other end of the central pole resting upon the ground.

Water

A human can survive a maximum of three days without the intake of water assuming you are at sea level, at room temperature, and a relative humidity.^[3] In colder or warmer temperatures, and/or with rain or snow, the length or likelihood of survival is greatly reduced. In addition to the aforementioned priorities, length of survival also depends on amount of physical exertion.

A typical person will lose 2-3 liters of water per day in ordinary conditions, but more in hot, dry, or cold weather. Four to six liters of water or other liquids are generally required each day in the wilderness to avoid dehydration and to keep your body functioning properly.^[3] The U.S. Army survival manual recommends that you drink water whenever thirsty.^[4] Other groups recommend rationing water through "water discipline".^[5]

A lack of water causes a condition called dehydration, which may result in lethargy, headaches, dizziness, confusion, and eventually death. Even mild dehydration reduces endurance and impairs concentration, which is dangerous in a survival situation where clear thinking is essential. Dark yellow or brown urine is a diagnostic indicator of dehydration. To avoid dehydration, a safe supply of drinking water must be located as soon as a shelter is built (or even before, depending on conditions).

Water can be gathered in numerous ways:

• scooped out of a creek or pond
• rainwater and dew can be caught in makeshift containers - (tarps, ponchos, cans, plastic bags, etc.)
• cut tree roots and water-containing vines
• scrape pulp from cacti^[6]

In a survival situation, any water supply may be contaminated with pollutants or pathogens (see Potability of backcountry water). Although little can be done to remove molecular contaminants, particles and microorganisms can be removed and/or killed (see Portable water purification). In a beach situation, digging deep in the sand below sea level can create a well that will fill with drinkable water. This water may taste salty or brackish, but the sand acts as a filter reducing the salt content^{citation needed} the further you dig inland. Stagnant water can be made drinkable by filtration through a sieve of charcoal.

Animal blood is not suitable for rehydration as it may be diseased. In addition, because of the nutrients it contains, it requires energy to digest. Mammals all have blood-borne pathogens so the animal must also be cooked. Urine contains salt and other toxins, which also makes it unsuitable to drink, although it can be refined in a solar still.

Many birds, mammals, and some insects, such as bees, ants, and mason flies, are reliable indications of water. Many times, animal tracks or trails will lead toward a body of water.

While finding water is most important, preventing water loss is also an issue. Resting, avoiding smoking, and breathing through the nose are recommended.

Food

Food is not urgently needed in survival situations because a human can survive for several weeks without it. However, much like dehydration, hunger can bring about many consequences long before it causes death, such as:

• Irritability and low morale
• Weakness
• Loss of mental clarity, such as confusion, disorientation, or poor judgment
• Weakened immune system
• Difficulty maintaining body temperature (see heat exhaustion and hypothermia)

Food is abundant and easy to find in most wild environments provided one knows where to look. A basic knowledge of animal trapping, hunting, and fishing will provide meat. Equally important is a knowledge of edible plants, fungi, and lichens. A survivor cannot always rely on the most abundant or most easily accessible type of food. To survive for long periods of time, a person must maintain a balanced diet.

Many survival books promote the "Universal Edibility Test"^[7]. Allegedly, one can distinguish edible foods from toxic ones by a series of progressive exposures to skin and mouth prior to ingestion, with waiting periods and checks for symptoms. However, many other experts including Ray Mears and John Kallas^[8] reject this method, stating that even a small amount of some "potential foods" can cause physical discomfort, illness, or death. An additional step called the scratch test is sometimes included to evaluate the edibility of a potential food.

First aid

First aid (wilderness first aid in particular) can help a person survive and function with injuries that would otherwise kill or incapacitate him/her. Common and dangerous injuries include:

• Lacerations, which may be infected
• Bites from venomous animals, such as snakes, scorpions, and spiders.
• Bone fractures
• Sprains, particularly of the ankle
• Burns

The survivor may need to apply the contents of a first aid kit or naturally-occurring medicinal plants, immobilize injured limbs, or even transport incapacitated comrades.

Navigation

Survival situations are resolved by finding one's way to safety. This requires some navigation or movement:

• Celestial navigation, using the sun and the night sky to locate the cardinal directions and to maintain course of travel
• Reading a map (particularly a topographic map), together with a compass or by orienting the map to the terrain
• Using a GPS receiver, if one is available

Other survival skills

For long-term survival some other skills are useful:

-A machete,kukri, or hatchet for the heavier duty chopping.(like for small trees)

• Knife or Multitool - usage and sharpening (a knife or Multitool is very important for all survival situations and for many aspects of bushcraft)

A sheath knife of high carbon steel with a 4 to 6 inch blade is invaluable for the creation of tools, splitting wood for fire building using a baton, building shelters and many other skills.

• Climbing and Mountaineering techniques
• Ropework
  • Making rope from materials such as the inner bark of trees, other plant fibers, or animal sinews
  • Knowledge of knots and their applications
• Making a raft or boat
• Weapons are an essential part of a large survival outfit. Weapons protect you and those around you and allow you to procure food through hunting. There are many points of view on this issue but by and large, a good .22 long rifle will serve to procure game and provide for moderate protection from predators both the four legged and two legged variety.
• Be sure to get proper training in regards to firearms.
• Basic primitive weapons can be important tools: they include spears, Vietnam crossbows, longbows, the throwing stick, clubs etc. Many primitive tools can also fill the weapon class as well such as a stone axe. First hand instruction is essential.

Training

Survival training has many components, mental competence and physical fitness being two. Mental competence includes the skills listed in this article, as well as the ability to overcome panic and think clearly. Physical fitness includes, among other abilities, carrying loads over long distances on rough terrain. Theoretical knowledge of survival skills is useful only if it can be applied effectively in the wilderness. Almost all Survival Skills are environment specific and require training in a particular environment.

Survival training is broken down into three types, or schools; Modern Wilderness Survival, Bushcraft, and Primitive Survival Techniques. Modern Wilderness Survival teaches the skills needed to survive Short-Term (1 to 4 Days) and Medium-Term (4 to 40 Days) survival situations.^[9] Bushcraft is the combination of Modern Wilderness Survival and useful Primitive Survival Techniques. It normally splits its skill acquisition between Medium-Term Survival Techniques (4 to 40 Days) and Long-Term Survival Techniques (40 Days Plus).^[10] Primitive Survival Techniques teaches the skills need to survive over the Long-Term (40 days plus). Many primitive technology skills require much more practice and may be more environment specific.^[11]

Several organizations offer wilderness survival training. Course ranges from one day to field courses lasting as long as a month. In addition to teaching survival techniques for conditions of limited food, water, and shelter, many organizations that teach bushcraft and Primitive Survival seek to engender appreciation and understanding of the lifestyles of pre-industrialized cultures.

There are several books that teach one how to survive in dangerous situations, and schools train children what to do in the event of an earthquake or fire. Some cities also have contingency plans in case of a major disaster, such as hurricanes or tornadoes.

Mental Preparedness

It should not be overlooked what the will to live means in a life and death situation. Stories of heroic feats of survival by regular people with little or no training are not uncommon. Even with a strong understanding of the way we may be mentally affected, even a trained survival expert may feel the crushing effects of psychological strain during duress. In order to overcome these affects it is important to study stress and how it may affect us both good and bad.

Studying stress will reveal to us that while it may not always seem like it, stress is a necessary evil and belongs for not only for malice but good as well.^{citation needed} It serves as a measuring stick for our success, it presents one with challenges, and it is a good way to show us how far we can bend and not break. Stress sometimes has a nice way of pointing out that things could indeed be much worse. On the flip side of the coin too much stress can be an awful thing. The carnage that stress can breed within a human being is almost without limits. Too much stress can lead to forgetfulness, increased propensity to making mistakes, lessened energy, outbursts of rage, and carelessness.^{citation needed}

Emotions are hard-wired into our brains.^{citation needed} Survival situations are bound to invoke strong emotional reactions from anyone evolved. There are a few emotions that most often accompany this type of event. They drastically lessen our ability to combat the situation. It is not something that initially comes to mind when thinking of surviving but they are as important as any other survival skill.

There are 7 emotions that must be overcome to allow a chance at survival:

• Fear - Once placed into a survival situation, one of the initial reactions for anyone is fear. It is a perfectly normal reaction; however, fear is the enemy. It drastically lessens one's ability to make clear decisions, which will ultimately lessen their chance for survival. In an effort to minimize one's fears, one can train in realistic situations to condition oneself to have the mentality needed to increase one's confidence and more effectively manage fear. Individuals with a phobia of insects, the outside, the darkness, etc. will need to learn to overcome these fears, by any means necessary.
• Anxiety – Typically, anxiety and fear run hand-in-hand with one another. It may start as an uneasy feeling in the pit of one's stomach, but by the time the mind is added into the situation, it may quickly spiral out of control. Anxiety will often take over the mind and quickly make it difficult to make rational decisions. Anxiety must be fought through in order to focus on the tasks at hand. Typically, once some of the critical survival needs have been met, anxiety will be easier to keep at bay.
• Panic - If fear and anxiety are left unchecked, panic will set in. Panic will lead to impulse actions and loss of self control. It could turn deadly as rationality is lost.
• Anger – It is inevitable that in a survival situation there are going to be problems. With the endless possibilities of things that can go wrong and probably will, to imagine that tempers may flare should not come as a surprise. Anger can sap one’s energy, rationality, and will to live. Finding other ways to channel this emotion will, regardless of it being a long or short run, prove more useful than losing one's temper.
• Depression – An overall sense of depression is not uncommon in wilderness. Being alone in the wilderness trying to survive is almost certainly bound to bring about a depressed state. Overwhelming depression can lead to the body shutting down, and not unlike anxiety, can also cause a human being to give up hope. Staying positive can allow one to combat this. One should also attempt to keep their hands busy; it seems that while humans are physically trying to improve their lives, by means of hunting, making shelter, etc., depression seems to affect one's mind less than if they were just sitting around.
• Guilt – Often accompanying a survival situation is some loss of life. The guilt may not even come from someone taking responsibility for the person’s death, rather a sense of guilt as they are alive and the other person is dead. This is called survivor's guilt and should be combated by maintaining a positive outlook, and possibly using religion to help deal with the pain following another's death.
• Boredom and Loneliness – An often unanticipated side effect of being in a survival situation. Boredom and loneliness can both contribute to lowering morale. It is important to be able to keep your mind busy and your spirits up. It may be one of the most critical skills to survive.^{citation needed}

Even after the situation has ended, there can still be long-lasting consequences. Survivor syndrome, not to be confused with survivor guilt, although they are similar in some forms, is one possible effect that can last for quite a while after an incident in which one needs to survive on one's own, with many others dead in the process.

Survival Manuals

A survival manual is a book used as reference in situations where a human's survival is threatened - emergency or non emergency. Typically it will cover both preparation for a trip, and guidance for dealing with eventualities.

There are many different types of survival manuals, but most have a section of standard documentation. These are sometimes republished for public distribution: for example the SAS Survival Handbook, United States Army Survival Manual (FM 21-76) and United States Air Force Survival Manual (AF 64-4). Other manuals have been written for more specific uses, such as wilderness or maritime survival.

Much of todays teaching principles on survival are derived from the work of SAS Survival Instructor, John 'Lofty' Wiseman, who is the author of the 'SAS Survival Handbook' and can be still found teaching for Trueways Survival School at http://www.survival-school.org.

See also

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of

Backpack camping and woodland survival

• Antitoxin
• Antivenin
• Firearms
• Hiking equipment
• Outdoor education
• Ray Mears (author)
• Rüdiger Nehberg
• Survival kit
• Survival knife
• Survivalism
• Alain Bombard biologist famous for sailing across the Atlantic Ocean in a small boat.

References

External links

• Survival at the Open Directory Project