Overfishing
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Graph showing shark catch from 1950 to 2006. Overfishing of sharks has led to the upset of entire marine ecosystems.^[1]

Overfishing occurs when fishing activities reduce fish stocks below an acceptable level. This can occur in any body of water from a pond to the oceans.

Ultimately overfishing may lead to resource depletion in cases of subsidised fishing, low biological growth rates and critical low biomass levels (e.g. by critical depensation growth properties).

The ability of the fisheries to naturally recover also depends on whether the conditions of the ecosystems are suitable for population growth. Dramatic changes in species composition may establish other equilibrium energy flows that involve other species compositions than had been present before (ecosystem shift). (For example: remove nearly all the trout, the carp take over and make it near impossible for the trout to re-establish a breeding population.)

Acceptable levels

The notion of overfishing hinges on what is meant by an acceptable level of fishing. More precise biological and bioeconomic terms define acceptable level as follows:

• Biological overfishing occurs when fishing mortality has reached a level where the stock biomass has negative marginal growth (slowing down biomass growth), as indicated by the red area in the figure. (Fish are being taken out of the water so quickly that the replenishment of stock by breeding slows down. If the replenishment continues to slow down for long enough, replenishment will go into reverse and the population will decrease.)

• Economic or bioeconomic overfishing additionally considers the cost of fishing and defines overfishing as a situation of negative marginal growth of resource rent. (Fish are being taken out of the water so quickly that the growth in the profitability of fishing slows down. If this continues for long enough, profitability will decrease.)

• A more dynamic definition of economic overfishing may also include a relevant discount rate and present value of flow of resource rent over all future catches.

The Traffic Light colour convention, showing the concept of Harvest Control Rule (HCR), specifying when a rebuilding plan is mandatory in terms of precautionary and limit reference points for spawning biomass and fishing mortality rate.

Harvest Control Rule

A current model for predicting acceptable levels is the Harvest Control Rule (HCR). The HCR is a variable over which management has some direct control as a function of some indicator of stock status. Constant catch and constant fishing mortality are two types of simple harvest control rules.^[1]

Input-output models

Fishing capacity can also be defined following an input or an output orientation.

• An input-oriented fishing capacity is defined as the maximum available capital stock in a fishery that is fully utilized at the maximum technical efficiency in a given time period, given resource and market conditions (Kirkley and Squires 1999).

• An output-oriented fishing capacity is defined as the maximum catch a vessel (fleet) can produce if inputs are fully utilized given the biomass, the fixed inputs, the age structure of the fish stock, and the present stage of technology (Vestergaard, et al. 2003).

Technical efficiency of each vessel of the fleet is assumed necessary to attain this maximum catch. The degree of capacity utilization results from the comparison of the actual level of output (input) and the capacity output (input) of a vessel or a fleet.

Fish production and demand

A major international scientific study released in November 2006 in the journal Science found that about one-third of all fishing stocks worldwide have collapsed (with a collapse being defined as a decline to less than 10% of their maximum observed abundance), and that if current trends continue all fish stocks worldwide will collapse within fifty years.^[2]

The FAO State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2004 report estimates that in 2003, of the main fish stocks or groups of resources for which assessment information is available, "approximately one-quarter were overexploited, depleted or recovering from depletion (16%, 7% and 1% respectively) and needed rebuilding."^[3]

The threat of overfishing is not limited to the target species only. As trawlers resort to deeper and deeper waters to fill their nets, they have begun to threaten delicate deep-sea ecosystems and the fish that inhabit them, such as the coelacanth.^[4] In the May 15, 2003 issue of the journal Nature, it is estimated that 10% of large predatory fish remain compared to levels before commercial fishing.^[5] Many fisheries experts, however, consider this claim to be exaggerated with respect to tuna populations ^[6].

From 1950 (18 million tonnes) to 1969 (56 million tonnes) fishfood production grew by about 5% each year; from 1969 onward production has raised 8% annually.^[7] It is expected that this demand will continue to rise, and MariCulture Systems estimated in 2002 that, by 2010, seafood production would have to increase by over 15.5 million tonnes to meet the desire of Earth's growing population.^[8] This is likely to further aggravate the problem of overfishing, unless aquaculture technology expands to meet the needs of human population.

Overfishing has depleted fish populations to the point that large scale commercial fishing, on average around the world, is not economically viable without government assistance. By the 1980s, economists estimated that for every $1 earned fishing, $1.77 had to be spent in catching and marketing the fish.^[9] Some species' stocks are so depleted that consumers are often unlikely to get what they think they are purchasing, due to a phenomenon called "species substitutions," where less desirable species are labeled and marketed under the names of more expensive ones. For example, genetic analysis shows that approximately 70% of fish sold as the highly-prized "red snapper" (Lutjanus campechanus) are other species.^[10]

Mitigation

With present and forecast levels of the world population it is not possible to solve the overfishing issue; however, there are mitigation measures that can save selected fisheries and forestall the collapse of others.

In order to meet the problems of overfishing, a precautionary approach and Harvest Control Rule (HCR) management principles have been introduced in the main fisheries around the world. The Traffic Light colour convention introduces sets of rules based on predefined critical values, which could be adjusted as more information is gained.

The "United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea" treaty deals with aspects of overfishing in articles 61, 62, and 65.^[11]

• Article 61 requires all coastal states to ensure that the maintenance of living resources in their exclusive economic zones is not endangered by over-exploitation. The same article addresses the maintenance or restoration of populations of species above levels at which their reproduction may become seriously threatened.

• Article 62 provides that coastal states: "shall promote the objective of optimum utilization of the living resources in the exclusive economic zone without prejudice to Article 61"
• Article 65 provides generally for the rights of, inter alia, coastal states to prohibit, limit, or regulate the exploitation of marine mammals.

Overfishing can be viewed as a case of the tragedy of the commons; in that sense, solutions would promote property rights, such as privatization and fish farming. Daniel K. Benjamin, in Fisheries are Classic Example of the "Tragedy of the Commons", cites research by Grafton, Squires, and Fox to support the idea that privatization can solve the overfishing problem^[12]:

According to recent research on the British Columbia halibut fishery, where the commons has been at least partly privatized, substantial ecological and economic benefits have resulted. There is less damage to fish stocks, the fishing is safer, and fewer resources are needed to achieve a given harvest.

Another possible solution, at least for some areas, is fishing quotas, so fishermen can only legally take a certain amount of fish. A more radical possibility is declaring certain areas of the sea "no-go zones" and make fishing there strictly illegal, so the fish in that area have time to recover and repopulate.

Controlling consumer behavior and demand is a key in mitigating action. Worldwide a number of initiatives emerged to provide consumers with information regarding the conservation status of the seafood available to them. The Guide to Good Fish Guides lists a number of these.

Marine Stewardship Council

The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) is an independent, global, non-profit organization which was set up in 1997 to find a solution to the problem of overfishing. It has developed an environmental standard for sustainable and well-managed fisheries. Environmentally responsible fisheries management and practices are rewarded with the use of its blue product ecolabel. Consumers concerned about overfishing and its consequences are increasingly able to choose seafood products which have been independently assessed against the MSC's environmental standard and labeled to prove it. This enables consumers to play a part in reversing the decline of fish stocks. As of March 2008, 26 fisheries around the world have been independently assessed and certified as meeting the MSC standard, and a further 68 are in assessment against the standard. There are over 1,400 seafood products sold by retailers in 36 countries around the world. Their `where to buy' page lists all currently available certified seafood.

Fish & Kids is an MSC project to teach schoolchildren about marine environmental issues, including overfishing.

Instances of overfishing

Examples of the outcomes from overfishing exist in areas such as the North Sea of Europe and the Grand Banks off the east coast of North America. In these locations, overfishing has not only proved disastrous to fish stocks but also to the fishing communities relying on the harvest. Like other extractive industries such as forestry and hunting, fishery is susceptible to economic interaction between ownership or stewardship and sustainability, otherwise known as the tragedy of the commons.

The Peruvian coastal anchovy fisheries crashed in the 1970s after overfishing, following an El Niño season ^[13] which largely depleted anchovies from its waters.^[14][15] Anchovies had previously been a major natural resource in Peru; indeed, 1971 alone yielded 10.2 million metric tons of anchovies. However, in the following year, and the four after that, the Peruvian fleet's catch amounted to only about 4 million tons.^[7] This was a major loss to Peru's economy.

The collapse of the cod fishery off Newfoundland, and the 1992 decision by Canada to impose an indefinite moratorium on the Grand Banks, is a dramatic example of the consequences of overfishing. ^[2]

The sole (Solea solea) fisheries in the Irish Sea, the west English Channel, and other locations have become overfished to the point of virtual collapse, according to the UK government's official Biodiversity Action Plan. The United Kingdom has created elements within this plan to attempt to restore this fishery, but the expanding human population and the expanding demand for fish has reached a point where demand for food threatens the stability of these fisheries, if not the species' survival.

Resistance from fishermen

The fishing capacity problem is not only related to the conservation of fish stocks but also to the sustainability of fishing activity. Causes of the fishing problem can be found in property rights regime of fishing resources. Overexploitation and rent dissipation of fishermen arise in open-access fisheries as was shown in Gordon (1953, 1954).

In open-access resources like fish stocks, the impossibility of excluding others provokes the fishermen who want to increase catch to do so effectively by taking someone else' share, intensifying competition. This provokes a capitalization process that leads them to increase their costs until they are equal to their revenue, dissipating their rent completely.

Benefits of underfishing

Deliberately underfishing in order to increase long term fish stocks has been proposed as a way fisherman can maximize their yields in the long run.^[3]

See also

• Bottom trawling
• Catch and release
• Environmental effects of fishing
• Fish processing vessel
• Fisheries management
• Fishing
• Fishing capacity
• Jellyfish (see under Behavior)
• Magnuson-Stevens Fisheries Conservation and Management Act of 1976
• Marine Protected Area
• Marine Stewardship Council
• Maximum sustainable yield
• Resource depletion
• Shark finning
• Sustainable seafood
• Tragedy of the commons
• World Ocean Day

Notes

1. ^  "'Only 50 years left' for sea fish", BBC News. 2 November 2006.
2. ^  "The Status of the Fishing Fleet," The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture: 2004.
3. ^  "Dinosaur fish pushed to the brink by deep-sea trawlers", The Observer Newspaper, 2006.
4. ^  "Rapid Worldwide Depletion of Predatory Fish Communities," Nature. 2003.
5. ^  "Decline of Pacific tuna populations exaggerated," Nature 434:E1-E2, 28 April 2005.
6. ^  "World Review of Fisheries and Aquaculture," The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture: 2000.
7. ^  Text of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: Part V
8. ^  Aquaculture, MariCulture Systems. 2004.
9. ^  Benjamin, Daniel K (2001). "Fisheries are Classic Example of the Tragedy of the Commons," PERC Reports, 19(1).
10. ^  "Peruvian Anchovy Case: Anchovy Depletion and Trade," Trade and Environment Database, 1999.
11. ^  "Foreign Assistance Legislation for Fiscal Year 1982," Committee on Foreign Affairs, 1981.
12. ^  "Peru - Fishing," Federal Research Division of the U.S. Library of Congress.
13. ^  "Shark Declines Threaten Shellfish Stocks, Study Says", National Geographic News. 29 March 2007.
14. ^  "Scientists Find 75 Percent Of Red Snapper Sold In Stores Is Really Some Other Species, Sciencedaily.com. 2004.
15. ^  Platt McGinn A (1998). "Promoting Sustainable Fisheries," State of the World, pp.59-78.

References

• Clover, Charles. 2004. The End of the Line: How overfishing is changing the world and what we eat. Ebury Press, London. ISBN 0-09-189780-7
• Kurlansky, Mark. (1997). Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World. New York: Walker. ISBN 0-8027-1326-2.
• Loder, Natasha. 2005. Point of No Return. Conservation in Practice 6(3):28-34. On overfishing as an evolutionary force and the "Darwinian debt" for future generations.
• Gordon, H. S. 1953. An Economic Approach to the optimum utilization of Fishery Resources, Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 10(7), 442-57.
• Gordon, H.S. 1954. The Economic Theory of a Common-Property Resource: The Fishery, Journal of the Political Economy, 62, 124-42.
• Kirkley, J.E. and Squires, D. 1999. Capacity and Capacity Utilization in Fishing Industries, Discussion paper 99-16, Department of Economics, University of California, San Diego.
• Vestergaard, N., Squires, D. and Kirkley, J.E. 2003. Measuring Capacity and Capacity Utilization in Fisheries. The Case of the Danish Gillnet Fleet, Fisheries Research, 60(2-3), 357-68.

External links

• Audresselles.cod|cods of wrath
• FAO Fisheries Department and its SOFIA report
• Seafood Watch from Monterey Bay Aquarium
• Greenpeace facts about overfishing
• National Geographic
• Newfoundland Crisis
• The Starving Ocean
• Fishing
• Fished Out: The Rise and Fall of the North-American Cod Fishery (CBC Archives)
• Marine Stewardship Council
• New science sheds light on rebuilding fisheries
• Atlas of the Oceans
• Fishing Capacity