Ilyushin Il-86
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content
Il-86
An Il-86 of Aeroflot
Role Wide-body airliner
Manufacturer MAP Factory No 64 and WSK PZL-Mielec
First flight 22 December 1976
Introduction 1980
Status Operational
Primary users S7 Airlines,
Atlant-Soyuz Airlines
Produced 1977-1994
Number built 106

The Ilyushin 86 is a medium-range wide-body jet airliner designed and tested by the Ilyushin design bureau in the 1970s, certificated by the Soviet aircraft industry during the 1970s and 1980s and manufactured jointly by the USSR and Poland. It was the first Soviet wide-body airliner and the world's second four-engined wide-body. Emerging during the Brezhnev stagnation, the Il-86 made Soviet technical and organisational decline obvious with its obsolescent engines and unduly prolonged development which prevented it entering service for the Moscow Olympics, as had been intended. Only 106 were built and only three were exported. The type was used overwhelmingly by Aeroflot and, after the collapse of the USSR, by successor post-Soviet airlines. It gained recognition as a safe and reliable machine which did what had been asked of it. By 2008, more than half of all Il-86s had been retired.

Contents

Design and development

Background

In the mid-1960s the USA and Western Europe planned airliners seating significantly more than the then-maximum of about 200 passengers: airbuses in contemporaneous parlance. The Soviet leadership wanted to match them with its own aerobus (Russian: аэробус). Though the propaganda motive was immensely powerful in Soviet policymaking, the USSR also had a pressing practical need for such an airliner. Aeroflot was growing very rapidly and expected to carry over 100 million passengers a year within a decade. First to respond to the need was OKB-153, the bureau led by Oleg Antonov, which proposed a 724-seat version of the An-22 airlifter[1]. This did not go ahead due to fears that it would be old-fashioned and because the Kiev-based bureau had been too closely associated with the deposed Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev[2][3].

Concept

Accommodating the 250 or more passengers envisaged for aerobuses called for ingenuity: many Soviet airports had small terminals and rebuilding them was prohibitive. To resolve the problem, Soviet aircraft industry research institutes elaborated a concept of passengers loading and unloading their luggage into and from baggage holds in the aerobus as they boarded and disembarked: "the luggage at hand" system (Russian: система "багаж с собой"; transliterated: sistyema "bagazh s soboy"). Airbus Industrie studied such arrangements in the mid-1970s[4]; Lockheed implemented a similar system into the L-1011 TriStar in 1973 at the request of Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA)[5]. Many Soviet airports also had weak surfaces and the aerobus had to match the ground loadings of existing airliners. This called for a complex and heavy multi-wheel landing gear[6]. In October 1967, the Soviet government approved a general specification for an aerobus drawn up by the Ministry of Civil Aviation (Aeroflot). This called for a seating capacity of 350, a range of 3600 kilometres/1900 nautical miles with a 40-tonne payload or up to 5800km/3100nm with most seats taken but no freight. The airliner had to be able to operate from smaller regional and local airports (classified as Klass "B" and "V" [Russian: класс "Б", "В"] or "Class B/C" by the Soviets), with runway lengths of up to 2600 metres/8500 feet[7].

In the second half of the 1960s, OKB-240 (as the Ilyushin bureau was formally known) was restoring the political positions it had lost (along with Yakovlev, in favour of Tupolev and Antonov) amid the anti-Stalinism of the Khrushchev era[8] and was well placed to secure design of the Soviet aerobus. Indeed, when the Soviet cabinet's defence industry committee progressed the Aeroflot specification on 8 September 1969 onto the preliminary project (Russian: аванпроект; transliterated: avanproyekt) stage[9], it entrusted it to Ilyushin. The bureau received specific operational requirements for the aerobus on 22 February 1970. Having won the political battle for the prestige project, the bureau now faced four technical challenges: configuration (layout), powerplant, automation (avionics) and manufacturing capacity.

Conceptual development

Ilyushin began its preliminary aerobus project in late 1969. Initially, this involved assessing the development potential of existing hardware. This included "stretched" versions of the Il-62, double-deck or "two fuselages side-by-side" developments of it, as well as civilianised versions of the Il-76. Eventually, the bureau moved to all-new designs. In a philosophical shift, it also embraced high-technology in contrast to the "appropriate technology approach" it had taken in developing the Il-62. Thus, the Il-86 would have powered controls, complex high-lift devices and advanced automation enabling fewer flightdeck crew.[10]

An early version of the avanproyekt was shown to the Soviet leadership at an exhibition of civil aviation novelties held at the Vnukovo-2 Airport near Moscow on 17 May 1971[11][12][13]. A scale model bore the true designation of "Il-86" (Russian: Ил-86, transliterated "Il vosem’desyat' shest'"). The model showed the "self-loading" concept with integral boarding stairs and below-deck luggage stores in addition to a below-deck midships galley. It had a twin-aisle interior with nine-abreast seating in a "3-3-3" layout. Ilyushin considered it politic to make the interior wider (6.08m/239in) than any airliner except the Boeing 747[14].

Configuration: The difference between the 1971 model and the eventual Il-86 was that the model looked like an Il-62. At that time, the clean-winged, rear-engined, T-tailed configuration of the Il-62 was favoured by TsAGI for airliners. The BAC Three-Eleven[15]and BAC/CASA/MBB Europlane[16] projects had similar configurations.

The configuration of heavy jet aircraft had become a sensitive issue in the USSR. Aircraft designer Leonid Selyakov[17] states: "The configuration of the В-47, taken on strength by the US Air Force ... brought forth a veritable storm of critical opinions from [Soviet] aviation scientists. Responsible TsAGI officials and industry leaders robustly called that aircraft 'utter nonsense' (similar opinions were expressed of the Boeing 747)." Ardent controversy was not unknown in Western aeronautical circles[18] but this degree of entrenched doctrinal intransigence was typical most of all of Soviet ideology which was accustomed to the idea that there had to be a single scientifically-correct solution for every problem[19]. Ilyushin therefore stressed that it had first in the world adopted podded engines suspended from pylons beneath and ahead of the wing, on the experimental Il-22 four-engined jet bomber of 1946 (first use of this designation)[20]. Having thus been presented as indigenously Soviet, the Il-86's ultimate configuration could at last appear in public in 1973, six years after publication of the aerobus specification and four years after the bureau had received the design assignment[21][22]. Six-light flightdeck glazing came soon afterwards.

Powerplant: The main problem facing the Il-86 project was the lack of a suitable engine. This problem was never resolved. The USA and the UK had turbofans with bypass ratios of 4 or 5 to 1. The first Soviet large turbofan, the Lotarev D-18T, did not appear before the mid-1980s[23].

The Soloviev D-30, originally intended for the Il-86, was the most advanced Soviet civil aeroengine. It had a bypass ratio of 2.4 to 1 and aerodynamic clamshell thrust reversers. It failed to attain the required thrust, however: "... only after the lapse of three years that were spent on preparing the advanced development project did it become clear that these engines would not provide the necessary take-off performance"[24]. The less-advanced Kuznetsov NK-8 series engine, adopted on 26 March 1975, had a bypass ratio of 1.15 to 1 and drag-inducing grilles over its cascade thrust reversers. Both these engines had high specific fuel consumptions and were noisy. Being ultimate developments of smaller engines, they could not offer any prospect of growth to the Il-86.

Avionics: The appropriate/intermediate technology principles to which most Soviet airliners before the Il-86 had been designed meant that they had typically five-member flight crews. The design and entry into service in 1972 of the Tu-154, an airliner built to high technology principles, showed that Soviet science was lagging in the avionics which removed the need for a navigator and radio operator.

A programme of avionics development was thus mounted to enable the Il-86 to operate in most weathers with a three-member flight crew. While it was successful, its outcome only matched the level of Western technology of the late 1960s.

Manufacture: The shortage of manufacturing facilities for the Il-86 constituted a problem from the outset: "The rapid modernisation of the Soviet Air Force ... has left limited scope for the expansion of commercial production ... the lack of production capacity is being remedied partly by ... international cooperation"[25].

Interest in acquiring foreign technology: Because of the intractability of the powerplant (and to an extent the avionics and manufacturing capacity) issues, the Soviets tried to acquire foreign technology. Before the Boeing 747 had flown, a Ministry of Civil Aviation delegation visited Boeing and received a series of detailed sales presentations on the type lasting three days. At the 1971 Paris Salon, Ilyushin bureau head Genrikh Novozhilov and Boeing's Joe Sutter arranged an informal technology trade-off. Over supper in a Paris restaurant, the Soviet side ceded information on its titanium technology to the Americans, while the latter, "sketching on the tablecloth," ceded information on "the structural and aerodynamic amity of the aeroelastic wing"[26].

Helped by the détente between the two superpowers at the time, on March 11, 1974, a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar arrived in Moscow for three days of sales presentations and demonstrations[27][28]. The TriStar matched the Il-86 in size and performance and was able to offer the self-loading luggage concept. The American airliner was widely regarded as the technological leader of the period and had development potential. Negotiations to buy 30 TriStars and licence-produce up to 100 more each year in a new factory employing 80,000 people[25] continued until mid-1976[29]. They collapsed as US President Jimmy Carter made human rights a US policy factor. The TriStar was also listed by the Coordinating Committee as embodying advanced technology banned from potential enemies.

At the same time, the US Department of Commerce vetoed export of 12 General Electric CF6-50 engines ordered by the USSR for planned long range versions of the Il-86[30].

In the 1980s, there were moves to fit the Il-86 with RB211-22 engines[31]. Designated Il-86V, this would have had a range of over 9000km/4860nm and/or increased payload. A "stretched" 450-seater Il-86V was also projected, to be powered by RB211-524G engines. Amid the disintegration of the Soviet economy these ideas did not progress.

In 1991, there were moves to fit the Il-86 with Franco-American CFM56-5C2 engines[32]. Finances precluded progress.

In 1995, International Aero Engines offered the V2500 engine for retrospective fitting on the Il-86. No development emerged, though five operators had wanted to re-engine 25 aircraft[33][34].

Design, testing and certification

The design process at Ilyushin was managed by Sergey Ilyushin's successor as head of the bureau, Genrikh Novozhilov. The timescale announced at the time envisaged first flight in 1976 and service entry in time for the Moscow Olympics in 1980.

The prototype flew at Khodynka airfield (where Ilyushin's experimental factory was) on 22 December 1976 (Soviet airliners often flew before the close of the calendar year due to the requirements of Five-Year Plans). At that time, it was learned that the type had a patented energy-efficient deicing system which delivered electromagnetic pulses to parts of the airframe prone to icing[35][36]. The system used 500 times less energy than conventional deicers[37]. The initial test programme was flown by Ilyushin staff, ending two months ahead of schedule on October 20th, 1978. (According to a faster schedule, announced at the time of the first flight, Ilyushin tests were to end in time for the 60th anniversary of the October Revolution, on November 7th, 1977[38].) Initial certification flying by pilots independent of Ilyushin ended on June 6th, 1977. State acceptance trials began on April 24th, 1979 and ended on 24 December 1980. They produced no evidence of shortcomings and certification by Gosaviaregistr SSSR [the USSR State Aviation Registry] was attained, under certificate number 10-86[39]. The service-entry deadline of summer 1980, announced by Minister of Civil Aviation Boris Bugayev in 1977[40] had passed, however, and the Il-86 missed the prestige Moscow Olympics.

Overall development of the Il-86 occupied over a decade. The undue length of this period was due to the sensitivity of the airliner's configuration, problems with its powerplant, prolonged avionics development and the low priority assigned to civil as opposed to military aircraft[41]. Moreover, in its early stages, the Il-86 programme was "fall-back insurance" in case US airliner imports failed. Certificating the Il-86 to the very demanding set of Soviet and Comecon standards called NLGS-2 also delayed progress; it was the first Soviet aircraft to undergo a full certification programme since certification was introduced in the USSR in 1967 and made mandatory five years later[42].

Undeveloped versions: On June 26th, 1972, a long-range version of the Il-86, the Il-86D (for Russian: "дальный"; transliterated: "dal’niy"; meaning "long-range"), was ordered into development by the Soviet cabinet. Design was completed in June 1976. The Il-86D would have had a marginally extended wing span, carried additional fuel, and had a range of some 8500km/4600nm. Later announcements stated that the version was to have new high bypass ratio engines, 147,500kg/325,000lb empty weight, 300,000kg/660,000lb maximum take-off weight, fuel capcaity of some 150,000kg/330,000lb, wing area of 325m2/5300 sq ft, and a range of 10,200km/5500nm. This version (also known as Il-86V) evolved into the Il-96.

A "minimum-change" development of the Il-86 which was tested in the 1980s but not adopted was a high-density 450 seat version with ten-abreast seating in a 3-4-3 configuration with reduced seat pitch[43].

Marketing

Il-86 provision to Aeroflot did not constitute a sale; rather, it was part of the Soviet state's centralised supply and allocation system. It was coordinated by government offices called Gosplan and Gossnab which controlled the entirety of planning and distribution processes in the USSR (except the black market). As part of a similar supply provision, Lot was allocated four Il-86s as barter for component manufacture. That airline deferred deliveries, which had been cancelled by 1987[44].

Selling the Il-86 commercially (which under the Soviet system meant solely exports) was the job of the Soviet foreign trade organisation V/O Aviaeksport. The compartmentalisation of a design bureau, acting like naval architects designing an aeroplane, a separate factory constructing it and a separate organisation selling it, was seen as diluting responsibility[45].

The Il-86 prototype was displayed at the Paris Salon International de l'Aéronautique in 1977. It was noted that its interior used patented fire-resistant materials and hydraulics employed a fire-resistant fluid[46]. At that time a version without the "luggage at hand" system was offered, seating 375 or alternatively weighing 3000kg/6600lb less and having longer range. This version offered 7 per cent lower seat-mile operational costs[47]. The type was again displayed at Paris in 1979, 1981, 1983 and 1985, the Farnborough Air Show in 1984 and other world air events.

On Tuesday 22 September 1981, an Il-86 flown by Commander G Volokhov and Second Pilot A Tyuryumin set Fédération Aéronautique Internationale records for flying payloads of 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60 and 65 tonnes over a 2000km closed circuit at an average of 975.3km/h[48]. Two days later, the same crew and machine set FAI records for flying payloads of 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75 and 80-tonne payloads over a 1000km closed circuit at an average of 962km/h[49]. Of these 18 records, one was broken by a Tu-144 in 1983, five were superseded or discontinued and 12 still stood in mid-2008.

In 1982 the type made a sales call in Bulgaria, followed by calls in 1983 in Hungary and Czechoslovakia. The calls appeared to have been hastily arranged[50]. Very little solid information was given to the potential customers: "constructor Novosilov side-stepped all questions [on fuel consumption] ... [the] chief pilot ... provided a measure of veiled explanation: 'The consumption of the Il-86 is not higher than that of the Il-18,' he said." While welcomed as “proof of friendship with the USSR”[51], these calls failed to attract orders. Observers tacitly noted that the aircraft marked a 10/15-year lag by Soviet civil aviation compared with the West.

The sole export order for the Il-86 − and the sole commercial transactions involving factory-built rather than secondhand examples − was by China Xinjiang Airlines which bought three aircraft in 1990. The rest of the manufacturing run was allocated by Aeroflot region and Soviet Air Force unit as follows (in order of first acceptance): the Vnukovo Aviation Entreprise, 21; the TsUMVS Administration of International Air Communications centred on Sheremetyevo Airport, 22; the Tashkent Air Enterprise, 9; the Sheremetyevo Air Enterprise, 10; the Pulkovo Air Enterprise, 8; the Alma-Ata Air Enterprise, 8; the Chkalovsky Soviet Air Force Base 8 ADON (or 8th Special Purposes Aviation Division), 4; the Kol'tsovo Air Enterprise, 6; the Tolmachevo Air Enterprise, 6; the Erevan Air Enterprise, 2; the Yemelyanovo Air Enterprise, 3[52].

Manufacture

On the Soviet side, the Ministry of Aircraft Manufacture ("MAP," "Minaviaprom") Factory 64 at Voronezh (today VASO) was tasked with building more than half of the Il-86 and of assembling the airliner[53]. However, capacity there was insufficient. Therefore, the Polish aircraft industry was involved in the Il-86 project from the outset. The arrangement was much not a subcontract; rather, it involved significant technology transfer to Poland to enable it to meet its assigned role: PZL Amalgamation Mielec factory Director Jerzy Belczak said it involved “… a radical retooling of our enterprise” involving “over 50 new processes”[54]. Observers noted that "work on the Il-86 will bring Poland's ... WSK-Mielec to a new level of capability ... in the manufacturing processes involved with an aircraft of this size, including titanium structures, chemical milling and the machining of integral panels"[55]. By the 1980s, Mielec was planned to produce half of the Il-86[56], including its entire wing, and also to work on Il-86 developments (“Now we are preparing to manufacture units for the next model of the Il wide-body plane,” according to Belczak[57] ). From May 1977, the Polish factory manufactured entire empennages including tailplanes and the fin, all control surfaces, high-lift devices and engine pylons for the Il-86, representing "about 16 per cent of these aircraft"[58]. As labour and political unrest spread in Poland from 1980, the Voronezh factory retained wing manufacture.

Five aircraft were assembled at Voronezh in the later 1970s in anticipation of successful certification. The first (flown on October 25th, 1977) was built largely by hand, subsequent machines making increasing use of series production equipment. These early aircraft were used in certification and development flying before handover to Aeroflot[59]. Voronezh factory production engineers conducted a "redesign cycle"[60] of over 50 areas, cutting some 1500kg/3300lb of airframe weight.

Production of the Il-86 began in 1976 and continued until 1991. The first two machines were hand-manufactured, in 1976 and 1977 respectively, by Ilyushin at the bureau's own Moscow prototype construction shop; one was used for flight testing and one for static ground testing. Three aircraft were assembled at Voronezh in 1979: one by hand and two using series manufacturing techniques. Subsequent years' manufacturing totals were: 1980, one; 1981, nil; 1982, 11; 1983, 12; 1984, 8; 1985, 9; 1986, 11; 1987, 10; 1988, 10; 1989, 9; 1990, 11 (including the three for export to China), 1991, 3.

Of the 106 examples built, one never flew (being used for static tests) and three were exported.[61].

Service

An inaugural flight from Moscow to Tashkent was made on December 26th, 1980 but services-proper commenced after 1 February 1981. Aeroflot first operated the Il-86 on peak domestic routes. Foreign services began in June 1981 to Eastern Europe and larger Western European cities.

Crewing: In 1987 Radio Moscow reported that Aeroflot "resisted the change" to a three-person crew[62][63]. Vul'fov, A, ibid., reports that the type continued to be operated by four-member crews. Navigators, occupying the observer seat (devoid of any instrumentation), had to stand unsecured on the final approach in order to observe the pilots’ instruments and to read-out indications, despite voice synthesisers being fitted. Soviet operations of the Tu-154 airliner similarly employed four or even five flightdeck crew members, despite foreign operators of that type using three-person flightdeck crews.

Long range use: From 1982 Aeroflot put the Il-86 into scheduled service from Moscow to Havana via Shannon and Gander, "perhaps with limited payload or with additional tankerage"[64]. Other scheduled long range services flown by the type were to Buenos Aires, Montevideo and Lima and to Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo via Sal Island.

Post-Soviet career: After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, local airlines emerged in the 15 successor republics. Il-86s serving with Aeroflot administrations ("Directorates") in these nations accrued to their airlines and many were leased or sold.

From April 2002, the European Union, the USA and much of the rest of the world banned noisier aircraft, including the Il-86. By 2008, the type operated solely within the former USSR. In May 2007, 42 Ilyushin Il-86s remained in service. On October 23rd, 2006, Aeroflot Deputy Director General Igor Desyatnichenko said: "the Il-86 will be withdrawn from service starting November 15 as it is too costly to maintain through the winter and to operate for just two or three months in the summer"[65].

Passenger and luggage handling: The Il-86's carry-on luggage arrangements were rarely used[66]. Vul'fov (ibid.) notes: "Thank God no civil servant got it into his head to refuse the parallel opportunity offered to passengers of electing to drop their luggage when checking-in at airports. Otherwise, the loading of luggage into the aircraft by passengers would have turned into a proper nightmare lasting hours." The three integral airstairs are used regularly for disembarkation and boarding when the aircraft is docked at remote hardstands.

Military service: With its built-in stairs and below deck holds, the Il-86 was expected to serve in the Soviet air forces: "The wide-bodied Il-86 can perform not only as a troop transport ... but may also in the future form the basis for a command and control aircraft for airbrne coordination of Warsaw Pact forces"[67]. In the event, four airframes (c/n 042, 043, 046 and 048, carrying quasi-civil registrations SSSR-86046, '7, '8 and '9) were delivered to the 8th Special Purposes Aviation Division at the Chkalovsky air base near Moscow. These were designated Il-80, Il-87 or Il-86VKP (Russian: “ВКП” for “воздушный коммандный пост”; transliterated: "vozdushniy kommandnyi post" “veh-kah-peh” and meaning "aerial command post"). One airframe was reportedly refitted as transport for the President of Russia.

The Il-80/Il-86VKP has the NATO reporting name Camber: the same as the passenger Il-86.

An Il-86 of Aeroflot
An Il-86 of Aeroflot

Operators

Civil operators In May 2007, 37 of 106 Il-86s remained in service with: [68]

Flag of Armenia
Flag of Russia
An Il-86 of the Pulkovo Aviation Enterprise/Pulkovo Airport
An Il-86 of the Pulkovo Aviation Enterprise/Pulkovo Airport
An Il-86 of S7 Airlines at Domodedovo International Airport
An Il-86 of S7 Airlines at Domodedovo International Airport

Former operators:[69][70]

Flag of the People's Republic of China China
Flag of Georgia (country) Georgia
Flag of Kazakhstan Kazakhstan
Flag of Pakistan Pakistan
Flag of Russia Russia
Flag of the Soviet Union USSR
  • Aeroflot Soviet Airlines: Vnukovo AP, TsUMVS, Tashkent AP, Sheremetyevo AP, Pulkovo AP, Alma-Ata AP, Kol'tsovo AP, Tolmachevo AP, Erevan AP, Ymelyanovo AP
Flag of Uzbekistan Uzbekistan

Military operators In May 2007, two of 4 Il-86VKPs (Il-80s; Il-87s) remained in service with:[68]

Flag of Russia Russia

Former operators of the Il-86VKP (or Il-80; or Il-87) include:[69]

Flag of the Soviet Union Soviet Union

Specifications

Name and designation Il-86 or IL-86 or Ilyushin 86 or Ilyushin-86
pronounced "I L eighty-six" or "Ill eighty-six"
Russian: "Ил восемдесять шесть"; transliterated “Il vosemdesyat shest'”
Powerplant four Kuznetsov NK-86 two-spool turbofan engines, up to127.5kN/13,000kgf/28,665lbf
VSU-10 APU
Thrust-to-weight ratio at maximum takeoff weight 0.242
Wing span 48.06m/157ft 8in
Overall length 60.21m/197ft 7in
Nominal height 15.68m/51ft 5in
Wing area 300m2 (3229ft2)
Wing loading at maximum takeoff weight 672kg/m2/133.15lb/ft2
Wing sweep 350 at quarter chord
Mean aerodynamic chord 7.57m/24ft 10in
Aspect ratio 7
Dihedral 6043’
Incidence 30 root, -10 tip
Undercarriage track 9.9m/32ft 5.5 in
Undercarriage wheelbase 21.05m/69ft to outboard gear; 22.32m/73ft 3in to centre gear
Ground turning circle 22m/72ft 2in minimum pavement width; 36m/119ft typical pavement width
Crew complement Three on the flightdeck (but four in USSR and Russian service due to industrial practices)
11 service-typical in the cabin
Accommodation 350 passengers, all-economy class, 9-abreast (3-3-3 typical), 84cm/34in seat pitch typical
320 passengers mixed class: 18 first, 56 business; 246 economy
cargo capacity of 16,000m3/565,035ft3 in three compartments
Maximum ramp weight 216,950kg/478,290lb
Maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) 215,000kg/458,560lb
Maximum landing weight 175,000kg/385,800lb
Maximum fuel weight 86,000kg /189,630lb
Maximum payload 40,000kg/88,185lb early, 42,000kg/92,594lb developed
Operational empty weight 117,500kg/259,043lb early, 115,000kg/253,531lb late
Typical takeoff balanced field length in ISA conditions 2800m/9190ft
Typical landing field length in ISA conditions 1200m/3940ft
Sea-level rate of climb 15m/s/2950ft/min at 210,000kg/463,000lb
service-typical between 5m/s/1000fpm and 10m/s/2000fpm
Typical safe climb-out speed (V2) on takeoff 295km/h/159kt
Initial climb speed 550km/h/297kt
Climb speed 510km/h/275kt
Cruise speeds (VNO) maximum 0.88 Mach at 11,000m/36,000ft to 12,000m/40,000ft
0.82M to 0.805M on under-210-minute sectors service-typical
0.782M long-range
Never-exceed speed (VNE) 670km/h/416mph/362kt indicated air speed (IAS) to 8200m/27,000ft or 750km/h/466mph/416kt IAS above that altitude
Cruise altitude 11,400m/37,000ft
Approach speed 410km/h/254kt
Typical runway threshold speed (VAT) on landing 270km/h/146kt at 175,000kg/385,800lb
Stall speeds 330km/h/178kt clean configuration at 210t; 250km/h/135kt with 250 flap, 210t; 234km/h/126kt 400 flap, 210t
Practical air ranges (full ICAO fuel reserves; MTOW) 3,400km/1835nm/2113 statute miles with maximum payload
4000km/2160nm/2485 miles with full passenger load and full tanks
5000km/2700nm/3106 miles with 300 passengers and full tanks
8200km/4428nm/5095 miles maximum still air (ferry) range with full tanks
Typical fuel consumption 14,000kg/30,865lb first hour
12,000kg/26,455lb per hour thereafter
Type All-metal low-wing land monoplane with four jet engines[71][72][73][74].
Wing Cantilever three-spar structure of modified trapezoid planform. Centre section integral with the fuselage, inboard sections, outboard sections and detachable leading and trailing edges. High-lift devices include full-span six-segment leading edge slats (contiguous past the engine pylons) at up to 17.5% of chord (drooping to 350), two-segment fixed vane double-slotted trailing edge flaps occupying some three quarters of the span (deploying to 400) and five-segment spoilers (outboards used as spoilerons at high speeds, inboards used as lift dumpers on the ground). Boundary layer fences over pylons. Two-segment outboard ailerons for low and intermediate speed roll control. Engines suspended from the wing on pylons act as anti-flutter weights. Trim range is 16-33% of mean aerodynamic chord.
Fuselage Conventional circular section structure of frames and stringers with a continuous main deck and lower decks fore and aft of the wing centre section. Rectangular windows in most interframe bays, eight ICAO Type 1a passenger doors on the main deck and three more on the lower deck portside; two freight hold doors and a galley supply door on the lower deck starboard. The main deck houses the flightdeck, two wardrobes, eight toilets, two pantry units and a three-section passenger cabin. The lower deck houses three entry vestibules/luggage stores with hydraulic boarding stairs to ground level and fixed stairs to the main deck, a midships galley linked with the main deck by an electric lift, two freight holds (fore and aft of the passenger facilities), an avionics bay and two technical bays. The entire accommodation is pressurised and air-conditioned with "earphones for music or on-board cinema[75]."
Empennage Conventional cantilevered trapezoid planform swept-back surfaces. Two-segment elevators and rudder. Tailplane area 96.5 m2/1039 sq. ft; incidence adjustable between 20 and 120 by electric motors commanded by yoke trim thumbwheels and console trim wheels. Fin area 56.06m2/603.4 sq. ft.
Landing gear Near-conventional layout, with a twin-wheeled nose gear leg and three four-wheel bogie main gear units (centre and two outer legs. Track is 9.9 m/32 ft 5.5 in
Powerplant Four Kuznetsov NK-86 two-spool turbofans. Five-stage LP compressors, six-stage LP compressors, annular combustor cans, single-stage HP turbine, two-stage LP turbine. Cascade thrust reversers canted 150 from the horizontal. Pneumatic starters (airborne relights use the windmill effect). Forward-facing air ejectors blow away detritus during taxi. A VSU-10 APU generates power and heats/cools the interior on the ground, provides engine start air. International Standard Atmosphere hourly fuel consumption per engine is 7.7t (16,975lb) at maximum continuous rated thrust, 6t (13,230lb) at nominal maximum thrust, 5.1t (11,243lb) at 85% thrust, 4.2t (9260lb) at 70%, 3.6t (7937lb) at 60%, 2.45t (5400lb) at 40% and 1t (2205lb) at idle. Overall hourly fuel consumption at long-range cruise and 190t (419,000lb) is 9.75t (21,495lb) reducing to 7.79t (17,174lb) at 140t (308,650lb).
Flight controls Inputs to all control surfaces are through hydraulic channels. An SAU-1T-2 automatic flight control system offers assisted manual and automatic flight modes, with no pure manual control option. Automatic coupled runway approaches to ICAO Category II conditions.
Hydraulics Four independent hydraulic systems power all flight controls and the built-in airstairs. Fluid is to the NGZh, rather than AMG, formula.
Electrics Four GT-40PCh6 engine generators, the APU or ground sources supply 200/115V, 400Hz current to the primary system or two secondary systems (36V/400Hz AC and 27V DC). Consumers include the high-lift devices, tailplane trim, deicing, galley lift and interior services.
Avionics A Pizhma-1 navigational system uses Omega inputs. GPS transceivers and TCAS fitted retrospectively during the 1990s. Pizhma-1 can be used throughout the flight from departure terminal area to landing and taxy to stand. Airfield approach aids enable instrument landing system approaches to ICAO Category II weather minima. Other radio aids include VOR and DME receivers, a weather radar and Warsaw Pact identification aids. Pizhma-1 has full-time roll and yaw dampers. Cockpit voice recorders and flight data recorders fitted as standard.

Incidents

The Il-86 is seen as one of the world's safest airliners. Only one accident involving fatalities had taken place by 2008. A 2006 ICAO paper stated: "There were no fatal accidents in passenger-carrying operations involving a wide-body IL-86, for all periods of operation"[76]. The first deputy minister of transport of Russia and head of the State Civil Aviation Service Aleksandr Nyeradko said in 2003: "the Il-86 was and remains one of the world's most dependable airliners[77].

The following are all significant recorded safety events in the history of the Il-86 to date:-

  • On an unknown date during the 1980s, an unknown Il-86 on approach to Mineral'nye Vody suffered a hydraulic failure resulting in asymmetrical deployment of the high-lift devices. The flight crew brought the machine to a safe landing without further incident. No casualties.
  • In 1980, the aircraft registered SSSR-86004 (constructor's number 51483200002 ["002"]) experienced a fire in engine No 4 on departure from Vnukovo; the crew initially shut down No 1 in error, then No 4, but landed safely on the reciprocal runway to the one from which they had departed, after performing a 1800 turn. No casualties.
  • In 1984, SSSR-86011 (c/n 009) was found to have suffered a tail strike on landing at Simferopol'[78]. No casualties.
  • On March 8, 1994, an Il-86 parked at Delhi airport was struck by a landing Boeing 737 flown by a trainee pilot. The 737 crew died but there were no casualties on the Il-86[79].
  • In June 1998, RA-86080 (c/n 051) was found to have been overstressed, most likely by a recent heavy landing, and repairs were considered inexpedient in view of coming retirement. No casualties; aircraft stored pending retirement.
  • On May 1st, 2000, RA-86113 (c/n 081) suffered an apparent engine failure and fire on departure from Sochi. The flight crew brought the machine to a safe overweight landing. The failure and fire indications were found to have been spurious. No casualties.
  • On September 21, 2001, RA-86074 (c/n 041) belly-landed at Dubai after a flight from Moscow, the flight crew having switched-off the ground proximity warning due to heavy workload on the approach and then neglected to extend the landing gear; no casualties; aircraft written-off[80].
  • On August 26th, 2000, RA-86066 (c/n 033) experienced a failure and fire in No 2 engine shortly after take-off from Moscow Sheremetyevo for Barcelona. The crew landed on the reciprocal runway with no further incident. No casualties.
  • On July 28, 2002, RA-86060 (c/n 027) crashed shortly after departure from Moscow while a ferry flight to Sankt Peterburg. The trim toggle button on the control column caused a spontaneous retrimming of the tailplane, rapid transition to nose-heavy trim and a dive; 14 of the four flightdeck crew, two ground support staff and ten cabin crew aboard the aircraft died. The two survivors, both of them cabin crew members, were injured[81][82][83][84].

Following the Moscow crash in July 2002, the MAK Interstate Aviation Committee withdrew the Il-86's certificate of airworthiness, temporarily grounding the type. The certificate was rapidly restored in stages, the process being complete by early 2003[85]. The accident prompted the Egyptian civil aviation authorities to state that they intended to ban Il-86 operations to Egypt on safety grounds. Amid continuing negotiations, by 2007 the intention appeared to have lapsed and intensive Il-86 operations to and from that country continued in 2008[86].

See also

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Related lists

References

  1. ^ See for instance Stroud J, Soviet Transport Aircraft since 1945, Putnam, London, 1968
  2. ^ Krasnoshchekov A, V Zayarin, "Античный герой XX века" ["An Ancient Hero Amid the 20th Century"], Aviatsiya i Vremya No 3 1999
  3. ^ Zasypkin Yu V, K Yu Kosminkov, eds, История конструкций самолетов в СССР 1951-1965 гг. ["A History of Aircraft Design in the USSR between 1951 and 1965"], Mashinostroenie, Moscow, 2002
  4. ^ Flight International 18/25 June 1977, p 1802.
  5. ^ See particularly "Transatlantic TriStar-2," Flight International 9 April 1977, - 994
  6. ^ Vul'fov A, "Широкофюзеляжные "ИЛы" ["The Broad-Fuselage ILs"], Aviatsiya i Kosmonavtika No 1 2001
  7. ^ Talikov N, "В небе "Ильюшин" ["Ilyushin in the Sky"], ADK Studiya, 1997
  8. ^ See particularly Yakovlev A S, "Цель жизни" ["My Life's Aim"], Politizdat, Moscow, 1973 and also Talikov, ibid; http://www.airpages.ru/cgi-bin/pg.pl?nav=ru20&page=gs_il.
  9. ^ Gordon Y, D Komissarov, S Komissarov, OKB Ilyushin: a History of the Design Bureau and its Aircraft, Midland/Ian Allan, Hinckley, 2004
  10. ^ Novozhilov G V, Lyeshchiner D V, Sheynin V M et al., Самолеты ОКБ имени С. В. Ильюшина ["Aircraft of the S V Ilyushin Experimental and Design Bureau"], Mashinostroyenie, Moscow, 1985
  11. ^ See Yakovlev A, ibid.
  12. ^ Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1973-74
  13. ^ Pravda, 18 May 1971
  14. ^ Gunston B, Aircraft of the Soviet Union, Osprey, London, 1984
  15. ^ "BAC's Big Twinjet," Flight International 14 November 1968, pp 777-780
  16. ^ "Europlane details revealed," Flight International 24 May 1973 pp 765-766
  17. ^ Selyakov L L, Тернистый путь в никуда: записки авиаконструктора ["A Thorny Road to Nowhere: an Aircraft Designer's Notes"], private edition, Moscow, 1995
  18. ^ See the chapter on the Sud Aviation SE.210 Caravelle in Stroud J, Jetliners in Service since 1952, Putnam, London, 1994
  19. ^ See in particular History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, various eds.
  20. ^ Gordon Y, Early Soviet Jet Bombers: the 1940s and early 1950s, Midland/Ian Allan, Hinckley, 2005
  21. ^ Flieger Revue 12-72, 1972
  22. ^ "Aeroflot Airbus Developments," Flight International, 1 February 1973, p 156.
  23. ^ Gunston, Bill. "Soviet turbofan revealed," Flight International 14 January 1984, pp 70-71
  24. ^ Gordon Y, D Komissarov, S Komissarov, OKB Ilyushin: A History of the Design Bureau and its Aircraft, Midland/Ian Allan, Hinckley, 2004
  25. ^ a b "Russia's New Long-Hauler," Flight International 20 August 1977, p 524.
  26. ^ Irving C, Wide-Body: the Making of the 747, Hodder & Stoughton, London, 1994, pp 250 et seq., pp 265-266
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  29. ^ Lockheed TriStar, Birtles P, Modern Civil Aircraft No 8, Ian Allan, London, 1989
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  31. ^ Flight International Commercial Aircraft of the World surveys 1986 et seq
  32. ^ "CFM-Engined Il-86 at Costs Stage," Flight International 12-18 September 1990, p 17
  33. ^ "CFMI Seeks to Pin Down Airlines on Il-86," Flight International 22-28 February 1995, p 11
  34. ^ "IAE offers V2500 as alternative on Il-86," Flight International 22-28 March 1995, p 12
  35. ^ Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1979-80
  36. ^ Flight International Commercial Aircraft of the World survey, 1977 et seq
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  39. ^ http://www.ilyushin.org/eng/products/passenger/86.html
  40. ^ Cooksley, ibid.
  41. ^ Flight International 17 October 1981, op. cit.
  42. ^ "Russia intensifies export drive," Flight International 12 April 1973, p 579
  43. ^ Gordon Y et al., ibid.
  44. ^ "Pressure mounts for LOT to buy American," Flight International 21 November 1987, p 6.
  45. ^ see Gunston B, op. cit., and especially Skipp P, http://www.airlinercafe.com/page.php?id=121 and http://www.vc10.net/History/Comp_il62.html
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  47. ^ Flight International Commercial Aircraft of the World survey 1981
  48. ^ FAI Sub-slass C-1 Group 3 Database IDs 4140 to 4150; http://records.fai.org/
  49. ^ FAI Sub-slass C-1 Group 3 Database IDs 4134 to 4139; http://records.fai.org/
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  52. ^ http://russianplanes.net/REGIST2/Ilushin/Il-86
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  56. ^ Flight International, op. cit
  57. ^ Aviaexport 15, ‘’ibid’’.
  58. ^ Flight International 29 April 1989, ibid.
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  60. ^ Statement by Genrikh Novozhilov, Flight International 23 July 1983
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  63. ^ Flight International 21 November 1987
  64. ^ Flight International 15 October 1983
  65. ^ http://www.sostav.ru/news/2006/10/30/101/
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  69. ^ a b Hillman, Peter (2004). Soviet Transports. The Aviation Hobby Shop, p. 323-326. 
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  72. ^ Jane's All the World's Aircraft, Jane's, Coulsdon, various years
  73. ^ OKB Ilyushin ibid.
  74. ^ Flight International Commercial Aircraft of the World surveys, 1995 et passim
  75. ^ "On Russia's Aircraft,Flight International, 23 June 1979, p 2239"
  76. ^ http://www.icao.int/icao/en/dgca/ip/dgca_06_ip_48_e.pdf
  77. ^ (http://www.ratanews.ru/news/news_17022003_13.stm)
  78. ^ http://russianplanes.net, ibid.
  79. ^ ASN Aircraft accident Ilyushin 86 RA-86119 Delhi-Indira Gandhi International Airport (DEL)
  80. ^ ASN Aircraft accident Ilyushin 86 RA-86074 Dubai Airport (DXB)
  81. ^ ASN Aircraft accident Ilyushin 86 RA-86060 Moscow
  82. ^ "А есть ли у нас в ГА бардак?" ["Is our civil aviation in a proper mess?"] http://davidov.livejournal.com/168330.html?thread=1367434
  83. ^ "О результатах расследования авиационного происшествия с самолетом Ил-86 RA-86060 28 июля 2002 года" ["On the Results of the Investigation into the Accident with the IL-86 aircraft RA-86060 on June 28th, 2002"] http://217.23.130.226/russian/info/news/2003/novosti_2003.html
  84. ^ "Анализ обстоятельств авиационного происшествия с самолетом Ил-86 RA-86060" ["An Analysis of hte Circumstances of the Air Crash of the Il-86 Aircraft RA-86060"] http://www.aerohelp.ru/index_print.php?idr=72&page=1&idn=354
  85. ^ http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0CWU/is_2003_Feb_17/ai_97775215
  86. ^ http://en.urbc.ru/daynews.asp?ida=155144
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