History of Mumbai

The History of Mumbai recounts the growth of a collection of islands on the western coast of India becoming the commercial and cultural capital of the nation and one of the most populous cities in the world. Although the islands were inhabited by humans since the Stone Age, the city was founded by Portuguese and British colonists in the 17th century. The city was named Bombay by the Portuguese and it served as the city's official name until 1995, when it was changed to Mumbai.

The British undertook land-filling and draining of the marshlands, developing a modern port and city, which attracted migrant workers from across India. In the 19th century, Mumbai emerged as an important centre of international commerce, industry and culture and in the 20th century, it became an important centre for politics and government, becoming a strong base of the Indian independence movement. Following India's independence in 1947, the city's population has expanded exponentially. Modern service, commerce and technology sectors have replaced the older, heavier industries and the expansion of city limits has been accompanied by the foundation of the sister city of Navi Mumbai. Although suffering from widespread crime, pollution, and overpopulation, Mumbai remains a centre of life, culture and commerce in India, with its inhabitants enjoying living conditions and a vibrant, modern economy and urban infrastructure.

Ancient period (200 BCE - 1348 CE)

The present day Mumbai was originally an archipelago of seven islands of Bombay, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli, and Old Woman's Island (also known as Little Colaba).^[1] Further lay a large group of islands known as Sashti, meaning sixty-six villages – antecedent to the modern Salsette Island.^[2] These islands were settled largely by the Koli tribe of fishermen.^[3] To the southeast of the Sashti, lay the island of Trombay.^[4] Pleistocene sediments found around Kandivali in northern Mumbai by Todd (1939) indicate that these islands were inhabited since the Stone Age.^[5]^[6] The Koli Goddess Mumbadevi, is the namesake of the archipelago and modern city.^[7]^[8]^[9]

The port of Sopara (present day Nala Sopara near Mumbai) was an important trading centre during ancient times.^[10]^[11]^[12] In 3rd century BCE, the islands were incorporated into the Maurya Empire under the expansion campaign of Emperor Ashoka of Magadha.^[13]^[14] The empire's patronage gradually made the islands a centre of Hindu and Buddhist religion and culture, with the establishment of monasteries and trading routes. Buddhist monks, scholars and artists created the artwork, inscriptions and sculpture of the Kanheri, Elephanta, Jogeshwari, and Mahakali caves.^[15] The total number of Buddhist cave temples numbered 109, dating from the end of the 2nd century BCE.^[16]

Later, the Aryans from North India ruled over Bombay. These islands were known as Heptanesia (Ancient Greek: A Cluster of Seven Islands) to the Greek geographer Ptolemy in 150 CE.^[17] These islands then fell to the Satvahanas.^[15] After the end of the Satvahana rule in 220 CE, the Kshatrapa rulers held dominion over Bombay. Coins found at Bombay and Nashik indicate that during the 5th century, Bombay was ruled by Krishnaraja, the earliest known Kalachuri King.^[18] These islands were then conquered by the Mauryas. The Mauryan presence in Bombay ended when the Chalukyas of Badami invaded Bombay in 590 CE. By 610 CE, these islands were completely under the control of the Chalukyas under Pulakesi II.^[19] Marco Polo, an Italian explorer, had sailed through the islands of Bombay.^[20] ^[21] The Silhara dynasty ruled the region between 810 CE and 1240 CE.^[22] The Banganga Tank and Walkeshwar Temple were constructed under the patronage of the Silhara rulers.^[22]^[23] Modern sources identify a 13th century King Bhimdev who had his capital in Mahikawati, present day Mahim and Prabhadevi.^[24] After his death in 1303 CE, he was succeeded by his son Pratapbimba, who had built his capital city at Marol in Salsette, which he named Pratappur (the present day Pardapur or Parjapur, a deserted village near the centre of Salsette). The islands were wrested from Pratapbimba's control by Mubarak, the emperor of Delhi, who had occupied Mahim and Salsette under his expansion campaign in 1318 CE. But it was later reconquered by Pratapbimba and he ruled these islands till 1331 CE. Later, his brother-in-law Nagardev reigned for 17 years till 1348 CE.^[25] In 1348, the islands came under the control of the Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat, thus ending the sovereignty of Hindu rulers over the islands of Bombay.^[26]

Islamic period (1348 - 1534)

According to Friar Odoric of Pordenone, an Italian traveler, in 1322, Thane was the seat of Government of the Muslim kingdoms in the North Konkan and was ruled by a Turk ruler.^[27] In 1391, shortly after the establishment of the Gujarat Sultanate, Firoz Shah of Gujarat appointed Muzaffar Shah I as the viceroy of north Konkan.^[28] For the administartion of the Bombay islands, he appointed a governor for Mahim.^[29] During the reign of Sultan Ahmad Shah I of Gujarat (1412-1441), Malik-us-Sharq, a Gujarat noble of renown, was posted for some years at Mahim, and in addition to instituting a proper survey of the islands, did much to improve the existing revenue system. Firishta, a Persian historian, recorded that by 1429 the seat of Government of the Muslim had been transferred from Thane to Bombay (Mahim).^[30] About the same period, the Bhongles, who were basically Bhandari leaders, seized the island of Mahim and ruled it for atleast eight years.^[31] However, it was shortly reconquered by Rai Qutb of the Sultanate of Gujarat. On his death in 1429-1430, Ahmad Shah I Wali (1422-1436) of the Bahmani Sultanate of Deccan despatched an army under Khalaf Hasan Basri to subjugate the north Konkan and he succeeded in capturing Salsette and Mahim.^[32]^[33]

Hearing of this event, Sultan Ahmad Shah I sent his son Jafar Khan to recapture the lost territory. A battle was fought between him and the Deccan monarch, which had been reinforced by the arrival of a fresh army under Prince Alauddin Bahamani. The Sultanate of Gujarat were victorious in the battle. Thus in 1431, Mahim was recaptured by the Sultanate of Gujarat.^[33] But when Kutb Khan, the Gujarat commandant of Mahim died, Sultan Ahmad Shah I Wali again despatched a large army under Malik-ul-Tujjar against Bombay. In response, Sultan Ahmad Shah I sent down a huge army under Jafar Khan and Iftikhar-ul-mulk and Mukhlis-ul-mulk (head of the Gujarat naval depot at Diu). The power of the Gujarat Sultan was too firmly grounded to offer any chance of success.^[34] The Sultanate's patronage led to the construction of many Islamic mosques and structures. The most prominent structure that came up during their rule, was the Haji Ali Dargah, that was built by a Muslim saint named Haji Ali in 1431.^[35]^[36] Later, the islands came under Bahadur Khan Gilani of the Gujarat monarchy.^[37] During the years 1491-1494, the whole of the Konkan came under the Bahamani general Khaja Mahmud Gavan (1482-1518) and Bombay was subsequently wrested from Gilani's control.^[38] However, after a series of attacks, the islands were reconqured by the Gujarat Sultanate and it came under Sultan Bahadur Shah (1527-1536).^[39]

In 1508, Portuguese explorer and trader Francisco de Almeida's ship sailed into the deep natural harbour of the island and he called it Bom Bahia (Good Bay).^[40] However, the Portuguese paid their first visit to the Bombay islands on 21 January 1509 when they landed at Mahim after capturing a Gujarat barge in the Bandora (Bandra) creek of Bombay.^[17] In 1526, the Portuguese established their factory at Bassein.^[41] In 1528-29, Lopo Vaz de Sampaio, overtook the Gujarat fleet near Bombay, and seized the fort of Mahim belonging to the King of Cambay (Sultan of Gujarat) who was at war with Nizamuluco (Nizam-ul-mulk), the lord of Cheul (South of Bombay).^[42]^[43] Sultan Bahadur Shah of Gujarat had grown apprehensive of the power of the Mughal emperor Humayun and he was obliged to sign the Treaty of Diu (1534) with the Portuguese. According to the treaty, the islands of Bombay and Bassein were offered to the Portuguese.^[44]^[45] However, Bassein and the seven islands of Bombay were surrendered later by a treaty of peace and commerce between Bahadur Shah and Nuno da Cunha on 25 October 1535.^[46]

Portuguese period

During 1534-1548, the islands were leased to Mestre Diogo.^[47]^[48]^[49]^[50] Between 1545 and 1548, during the viceroyalty of Dom João de Castro, the four villages of Parel, Wadala, Sion, and Worli were granted to Manuel Serrao.^[51]^[52] In 1548, the villages of Trombay and Chembur were granted to Dom Roque Tello de Menezes and the Island of Pory (Elephanta Island) to Joao Pirez.^[53]^[54]^[55] In 1554, during the viceroyalty of Dom Pedro Mascarenhas, the islands of Bombay were leased to Garcia de Orta, a Portuguese physician and botanist.^[56]^[57]^[58]^[59]. Sashti was part of the northern province of Portuguese India, which was governed from Baçaim (present-day Vasai) on the north shore of Vasai Creek. The forts served as watchtowers for enemy ships, particularly from other European colonial powers.

On the island of Mazagaon, the Jesuits had set up base claiming the land. The Portuguese king refused to entertain their claim, and in 1572 permanently leased the island to the Sousa e Lima family.

British period

In 1661 the seven Bombay islets were ceded to Britain as part of the dowry of Catherine of Bragança to King Charles II of England. Sashti remained in Portuguese hands. King Charles in turn leased the Bombay islets to the British East India Company in 1668 for £10 per year. The company found the deep harbour at Bombay eminently opposite, and the population rose from 10,000 in 1661 to 60,000 people by 1675. In 1687, the British East India Company transferred their headquarters there from Surat. In 1737 Sashti was captured by the forces of the Maratha empire and most of the Portuguese province was ceded to the Marathas in 1739. The British occupied Sashti in 1774, which was formally ceded to the British East India Company in the Treaty of Salbai signed in 1782.

Charles II, eager to set up base in India, leased the islands in 1668 to the fledgling British East India Company for a paltry sum of £ 10 per annum in gold. The company, in search of a deep water port for its large vessels, found the deep harbour opposite for this purpose. After the East India Company shifted base to the islands in 1668, Sir George Oxenden became the first governor of the new province. He was succeeded by Gerald Aungier in 1672. He offered various incentives to skilled workers and traders to move to this British possession. The opportunities for business attracted many communities from Gujarat — the Parsis, the Dawoodi Bohras, the Jews and the Gujarati community. Aungier was given the title "Father of Bombay" by historians as it was his foresight to develop the islands into a centre of commerce to rival other ports which were in the hands of other kingdoms which resulted in the boom in the economy. He fortified defences by embarking on the construction of the Bombay Castle and established courts of law to provide justice.

In 1682, the Company fortified an isle — The Middle Ground Coastal Battery in the archipelago to curb the sea piracy in the area. Later a marine police force comprising of Bhandaris were stationed there to keep an eye on the pirates who used to board the ships. The police were a formidable sight and soon the area was devoid of pirates. After surpassing Surat in importance as the Company's chief port on the west coast the population was estimated to rise from 10,000 in 1661 to 60,000 by 1675. In 1687, the presidency of the East India Company shifted from Surat to Bombay and consequently it became its headquarters in 1708. In 1715 the construction of Bombay Castle was finished. The southern limit of the castle was the present day Flora Fountain area where a gate stood. The castle also known as Fort St George or Bombay Fort fortified the island of Bombay from a sea attack by the Portuguese and Mughals. This enclave proved to be a safe haven for many skilled workers away from the power struggles on the mainland. The shipbuilding industry moved to Bombay from Surat with the coming of the Wadias who were Parsis. In 1753, the Naval Dockyard was opened which remains the oldest docks in the city. Artisans from Gujarat, such as goldsmiths, ironsmiths and weavers moved to the islands and coexisted with the slave trade from Madagascar. During this time period, the first land-use laws were set up in Bombay, segregating the British part of the islands from the black town. In 1757, Kamathis, construction workers from Andhra Pradesh arrived here and set up base. The region was the low-lying area near present day Mahalaxmi. The region became known as Kamathipura, now notorious for its red-light area. In 1794 the Presidency Post Office was established.

In 1782 William Hornby, then Governor of Bombay Presidency, initiated the project of connecting the isles. The Hornby Vellard was the first of the engineering projects, started in 1784, despite opposition from the directors of the East India Company. The cost of the vellard was estimated at Rs. 100,000. The project gained momentum in 1817, and by 1845 the seven southern islands had been connected to form Old Bombay, with an area of 435 km². Railway viaducts and road bridges were built in the 19th century to connect Bombay island to Sashti, and Sashti to the mainland. These railway lines encouraged wealthier merchants to build villas on Sashti, and by 1901 the population of Sashti was 146,993, and became known as Greater Bombay. The channels separating Bombay and Trombay islands from Sashti Island were filled in the early 20th century.

Consolidation of Bombay islands

The first indications of a project to link the islands was carried out in long before the Portuguese arrived, when Bombay was connected to the island of Worli by a rudimentary stone causeway that could be accessed during the low tide. In 1708, the island of Parel and Mahim were connected by a causeway providing easy access between the two islands and was the first major reclamation. By 1730, land on the main Bombay Island was at a premium owing to the burgeoning of the city's population. Since the sea was shallow and marshy, travelling between islands were hazardous especially during the monsoon season. A practical solution was to raze the numerous hills on the islands and use the debris to fill the shallows.

The British governor William Hornby launched the Hornby Vellard project to connect the islands for a sum of Rs 1 lakh (100,000). An approval for the reclamation was sought from the directors of the East India Company in England and Hornby expected it to be approved and proceeded on with the reclamation without official permission. In 1772 the second reclamation took place to fill in the shallows between the islands of Parel, Worli, Bombay, Mahim and Mazagaon by building a bund to prevent the ingress of the sea, thus gaining valuable land. However, Hornby's project was denied by the Company a year later and the project deemed illegal, resulting in Hornby being sacked. The bund however, was already completed by then, so reclamation had to take place. By 1884, the entire sea portions between the islands were reclaimed connecting five islands.

The British refused to build causeways between the amalgamated landmasses and the other islands and people continued to perish during inclement weather. Lady Avabai Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy, wife of the first baronet Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy decided to fund the building of causeways on the stipulation that no toll be levied. In 1803, the first causeway linking the landmass to Salsette through Parel was completed. Later in 1838, the island of Colaba and Little Colaba was connected to Bombay by a causeway known as the Colaba Causeway. In 1845 the Mahim Causeway, connected Mahim to Bandra on Salcette island was completed. This causeway was estimated to cost Rs 1 lakh in 1842, but as work commenced the cost escalated and finally cost Rs 1.57 lakhs which was paid by Lady Jeejeebhoy.

City development

Under British influence, Mumbai became home to progressive institutions that helped spearhead social and economic modernization across India. In 1845, the Grant Medical College and hospital, only the third in the country, was founded by Governor Robert Grant. The foundation of the University of Bombay in 1857 made it the first modern institution of higher education in India, along with the University of Calcutta. In 1887 the Victoria Jubilee Technical Institute was founded, becoming the first-ever Indian institute offering degrees in engineering and technical subjects. On April 16, 1853 the first-ever Indian railway line began operations between the city and neighbouring Thane, over a distance of 21 miles. The Great Indian Peninsular (GIP) and the Bombay Baroda and Central India (BB&CI) Railway were started in 1860 and a regular service of steamers on the west coast was commenced in 1869. By 1900, this railway network served more than 1 million passengers annually.

Raw cotton from Gujarat was being shipped to Lancashire in England through Mumbai, and after being spun and woven into cloth, returned to be sold in the Indian market. The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 increased the demand for cotton in the West and the first cotton mill was established in 1854, and the numbers of mills rapidly multiplied as Mumbai provided the industrial infrastructure and raw materials, and importantly access to foreign trade and markets. The industry attracted thousands of workers from across India, transforming the city's economy and demographics – Mumbai's population had swelled from 13,726 in 1780 to 644,405 people by 1872, in a little over a hundred years. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 brought the West closer to Mumbai, and as the city became even more prosperous, many schemes were launched for reclaiming additional land and building more roads and wharves. In 1870 the docks were consolidated under the Bombay Port Trust, and the Bombay Municipal Corporation was established in 1872, providing a modern framework of governance for the rapidly-growing city.

The later half of the 19th century was also to see a feverish construction of buildings in Bombay, many of which such as, the Victoria Terminus, the General Post Office, Municipal Corporation, the Prince of Wales Museum, Rajabai Tower and Bombay University, Elphistone College and the Cawasji Jehangir Hall, the Crawford Market, the Old Secretariat (Old Customs House) and the Public Works Department (PWD) Building, still stand today as major landmarks. The Gateway of India was built to commemorate the visit of king George V and Queen Mary for the Darbar at Delhi in 1911.

The docks at Bombay are a monument of the industry, enterprise and integrity of a Parsi family, the Wadias which moved in from Surat at the instigation of the British. In 1870 the Bombay Port Trust was formed. In 1872, Jamshedji Wadia, a Parsi master shipbuilder constructed the "Cornwalis", a frigate of 50 guns, for the East India Company, a success which led to several orders from the British Navy. In all the Wadias, between 1735-1863 built 170 war vessels for the Company, 34 man-of-war for the British Navy, 87 merchant vessels for private firms, and three vessels for the Queen of Muscat at Bombay docks.

The Princess Dock was built in the year 1885 and the Victoria Dock and the Mereweather Dry Docks in 1891. Alexandra Dock was completed in 1914. The closing years of the 19th Century were tragic for Bombay as the bubonic plague caused great destruction of human life once more. One significant result of the plague was the creation of the City Improvement Trust which in later years encouraged the development of the suburbs for residential purposes to remove the congestion in the city.

The Port Trust Railway from Ballard Pier to Wadala was opened in 1915. Along this railway were built grain and fuel oil depots. The kerosene oil installations were developed at Sewri and for petrol at Wadala. Around 1860 the water supply from Tulsi and Vehar lakes (and later Tansa) was inaugurated. One reform which met with much superstitious opposition before it was implemented was the closure or sealing of open wells and tanks that bred mosquitos. A good drainage system was also constructed at the same time. In 1915 the first overhead transmission lines of the Tata Power Company were erected, and in 1927 the first electric locomotives manufactured by Metropolitan Vickers of England were put into service up to Poona and Igatpuri on the GIP railway and later electric multiple rake commuter trains ran up to Virar on the BB&CI railway.

Centre of national life

The Fort (downtown) area in Bombay derives its name from the fact that the area fell within the former walled city, of which only a small fragment survives as part of the eastern boundary wall of the St. George's Hospital. In 1813 there were 10,801 persons living in the fort, 5,464, or nearly 50%, of them Parsis. With the growth of the city more people came from the Fort to such suburbs as Byculla, Parel, Malabar Hill, and Mazagaon. European sports clubs for cricket and other games came in to existence early in the 19th century. The Bombay Gymkhana was formed in 1875 exclusively for Europeans. Other communities followed this example, and various Parsi, Muslim, and Hindu gymkhanas were started with fierce sports competitions among them being organized on a communal basis, such as the Bombay Quadrangular. Mumbai became one of the few citis in the world to include a large national park within its limits, and the Bombay Natural History Society was founded in 1883.

Mumbai's premier educational institutions, thriving economy and burgeoning activity in politics, government and law made it a vibrant centre of cultural, commercial and political activities, becoming a rival to the capital Kolkata. In 1885, Indian intellectual, professional and political leaders convened in the city to form the Indian National Congress, which would become the nation's largest political party and spearhead the Indian independence movement. The city was filled with wealthy barristers, industrialists, merchants, lawyers and artists, as well as by their younger contemporaries who aspired for exposure to the world. Mumbai became an access point for thousands of Indians travelling to study in different universities across Europe, most of whom would settle in the city upon return. Eminent city personalities of the time included Dadabhai Naoroji, Sir Pherozeshah Mehta, Sir Cowasji Jehangir, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Bal Gangadhar Tilak as well as sportsmen Vijay Merchant and Palwankar Baloo. English was the lingua franca of these prominent and educated classes of '"Bombayites. Cultural activities including a vibrant opera and theatre circuit, and an emerging film industry that produced works in many languages and included filmmakers and artists such as Dadasaheb Phalke, Noor Jehan and Dilip Kumar. On October 15, 1932 industrialist and aviator J.R.D. Tata pioneered civil aviation in India by flying a plane from Karachi to Mumbai, landing on a grass strip where the Juhu Aerodrome would be founded.

But a vast majority of Mumbai's population lived in crowded shanty towns and slums. Mostly migrants from other parts of India, they struggled against poverty, diseases, malnutrition, illiteracy and unemployment on daily basis. While less than 40% of population were of Maratha background and spoke Marathi, the city was mostly cosmopolitan with its elite classes represented by Gujarati-speaking Hindus and Parsis. Hindi was fast becoming the lingua franca of the city's lower and middle classes who hailed from southern, eastern and northern regions of India. Sizable communities spoke Tamil, Bengali, Sindhi and Punjabi. Urdu was the common medium used by the city's Muslims, and the large Gujarati community, which formed the bulk of the city's mercantile and business class used Gujarati. The city's sudden and rapid expansion spawned new professional classes – tens of thousands of people were employed as dabbawalas, delivering food tiffins to working people across the city. Thousands of men worked as porters and labourers on the construction of hundreds of roads and buildings. Both men and women filled the large, new servant class that performed the chores of cooking food, cleaning and looking after the families. Small but significant migrant communities came to work, study and live in the city from Iran, Afghanistan, Burma, Africa and different parts of the British Empire.

Following World War I, which had seen large movements of troops, supplies, arms and industrial goods to and from Mumbai, the city became a strong base of nationalist activities. City life was shut down many times during the Non-cooperation movement from 1920 to 1922, and again during the Salt satyagraha in the early 1930s. Hundreds of thousands of people participated in protests and strikes across the city, and a large number of political organizations and trade unions were established. Mumbai became home to a large number of publications companies churning out newspapers, magazines, books and pamphlets in almost every Indian language. With World War II, the movements of thousands of troops, military and industrial goods and the fleet of the Royal Indian Navy made Mumbai an important military base for the battles being fought in West Asia and South East Asia. The climactic Quit India rebellion was promulgated on August 7, 1942 by the Congress Party in a public meeting at Gowalia Tank, where an estimated one million people congregated to listen to the message and speeches of Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Jawaharlal Nehru, Maulana Azad and other leaders. Mumbai was the scene of the most intense rebellion, with the city paralyzed by strikes, protests and frequent acts of violence and industrial sabotage, prompting the imposition of martial law. Large numbers of people were arrested and hundreds of people were killed in police firings. The Bombay Mutiny of 1946 marked the first and most serious revolt by the Indian military personnel of the Western naval fleet against British rule. The partition of India accompanied independence on August 15, 1947 and caused intense violence between Hindus and Muslims, leaving tens of thousands of people dead.

Post-independence

Mumbai was one of the most progressive cities in independent India. The city was the centre of domestic and international trade, modern industries and home to a large pool of educated, skilled workers. The flow of migrants from different parts of India increased significantly, and the city population grew exponentially. City limits expanded with the incorporation of suburbs from the northern parts of Salsette Island. The Borivali National Park was expanded and large areas of wetlands were issued protection. The long-standing fishing villages dating back to the Koli peoples were given special status and their habitat was protected.

In 1995, the newly-elected Shiv Sena-led government would rename the city Mumbai. The Victoria Terminus was renamed the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, after the legendary Marathi king and hero. The airport was named the Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, and the VJTI was renamed after Shivaji's mother Jijabai, also a popular historical figure and heroine, as the Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute. However some of the journalists and political observers viewed these renaming as exploitation of nationalist sentiments.

Economic growth

Since independence, Mumbai has seen an exponential growth and diversification of service industries, from tourism, hoteling, cuisine and catering to information technology, telecommunications, finance, banking and commercial trading sectors. India's two largest stock markets, the BSE and the National Stock Exchange play a central role in the city's economic life, employing thousands of brokers, analysts and investors and attracting aspiring entrepreneurs and large corporations across the nation and the world. Mumbai has especially benefited from the liberalisation of the economy in the early 1990s, which resulted in a feverish growth for banking, finance, trading and investment sectors.

Mumbai's burgeoning population growth has made real estate and construction the fastest-growing and intensely competitive industries in the city. Mills and factories that characterized Mumbai's industrial economy were gradually relocated from the city owing to rising costs, unproductivity, militant trade unionist activities and concerns of pollution. In the 1990s, a sister township of Navi Mumbai was founded across Thane to help ease the overpopulation of Mumbai and relocate many of the city industries, and the Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust was founded in Nahva Sheva to ease the increasing loads of the Mumbai harbour and docks. At the same time, the presence of scientific and high technology industries has increased manifold.

Cultural expansion

Modern educational institutions such as the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay were established and the University of Bombay was expanded to provide greater opportunities to young Indians. Mumbai's school system includes a large number of private institutions, considered of high national and international quality. The city attracts a large number of tourists from different parts of India and across the world, attracted to its vibrant cultural and commercial life, islands, beaches and seashores.

The Hindi film industry, popularly nicknamed "Bollywood", expanded exponentially in popularity and productivity after independence. Tens of thousands of aspiring artists flood into the city, hoping to work in film and television productions. Most Indian film actors, filmmakers, singers, musicians, celebrities and most of the technical staff of the industry are based in the city, along with most of the studios and production companies. Infe has over the years attracted increasing numbers of performing artists from foreign countries.

Modern period

Mumbai's cultural and socio-economic diversity has also spawned serious challenges of violence. . The city witnessed sectarian violence in the 1950s, when the city was included in the new state of Maharashtra, created on May 1, 1960. Intermittent incidents of religious and political violence occurred throughout the 1960s, and large-scale industrial strikes were frequently organized by militant trade unions. In the 1960s and 1970s, tensions between the local Marathi communities and migrant communities from southern and northern India provoked hostility from political parties such as the Shiv Sena and led to incidents of violence.Mumbai's prominent status and importance to national life has made it a target of extremists and terorists. In December 1992, hundreds of people were killed and the city paralyzed by religious violence caused by the destruction of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya. In 1993, serial bomb blasts killed more than 250 people and damaged the Bombay Stock Exchange; these were believed to be orchestrated by mafia don Dawood Ibrahim in retaliation for the mosque demolition. Similar bombings occurred in 1998, and on July 11, 2006 close to 200 people were killed in 7 bomb blasts that targeted key railway stations across the citynews Political and religious extremist groups have frequently clashed in numerous incidents of violence, with rival political parties frequently calling for bandhs (shutdowns) in response to controversial events..

Although smuggling was reduced considerably by the 1990s, city life was characterized by criminal networks engaging in rampant extortion, arms, drugs and human trafficking, kidnapping and homicides. The Mumbai police under commissioner Julio Ribero launched intensive operations to crush organized crime, but was also criticized for using controversial tactics such as extra-judicial killings. The volatile and often-bloody events marking underworld activities have entered into popular culture, being the subject of successful films, documentaries and literature. Police and local government officials and politicians are frequently assailed for entrenched corruption. Large and mostly illegal slum settlements, illicit constructions and property disputes are common and serious problems faced by the city.

The 21st century

On 6 December 2002, a bomb placed under a seat of an empty BEST bus exploded near the busy Ghatkopar station in Mumbai. Around 2 people were killed and 28 were injured.^[60]^[61] On 27 January 2003, a bomb placed on a bicycle exploded near the busy Vile Parle station in Mumbai. The bomb killed 1 and injured 25.^[62]^[63] On 13 March 2003, a bomb exploded as a train pulled into Mulund station in Mumbai. 10 people were killed and 70 were injured.^[64]^[65] On 28 July 2003, a bomb placed under a seat of a BEST bus exploded in Ghatkopar. The bomb killed 4 people and injured 32.^[66] On 25 August 2003, two blasts in South Mumbai - one near the Gateway of India and the other at Zaveri Bazaar in Kalbadevi occured. Atleast 48 people were killed and 150 injured.^[67]^[68] Mumbai was lashed by torrential rains on 26 July-27 July 2005, during which the city received 37 inches (940 millimeters) of rain in 24 hours — the most any Indian city has ever received in one day. Around 83 people were killed.^[69]^[70]^[71] On 11 July 2006, a series of seven bomb blasts took place over a period of 11 minutes on the Suburban Railway in Mumbai. 209 people were killed and over 700 were injured.^[72]^[73]^[74] In 2008, the city experienced xenophobic attacks by the activists of the Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS) on the North Indian migrants in Mumbai.^[75]^[76] Attacks included assault on North Indian taxi drivers and damage of their vehicles.^[77]^[78]

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