High commissioner
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High Commissioner is the title of various high-ranking, special executive positions held by a commission of appointment.

The English term is also used to render various equivalent titles in other languages.

Contents

The Commonwealth

Bilateral dipomacy

The Tanzanian High Commission in London. Tanzania and the United Kingdom are both members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
The Tanzanian High Commission in London. Tanzania and the United Kingdom are both members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
Main article: High Commissioner (Commonwealth)

In the Commonwealth of Nations, a High Commissioner is the senior diplomat (ranking as an ambassador) in charge of the diplomatic mission of one Commonwealth government to another.

British Colonial usage

Formerly, in the British Empire, the British Government appointed high commissioners to manage protectorates or groups of territories not fully under the sovereignty of the British Crown.

Historically, in the British Empire (most of which would become the Commonwealth) High Commissioners were envoys of the Imperial Government appointed to manage protectorates or groups of territories not fully under the sovereignty of the British Crown, while Crown colonies (which were British sovereign territory) would normally be administered by a Governor and the most significant possessions, large confederations and the independent Commonwealth Dominions would be headed by a Governor-General.

Cases include:

  • the island of Cyprus, since 12 July 1878 under British administration (previously under Ottoman military rule), Istanbul retained nominal suzerainty until the 5 November 1914 full British annexation; there were 9 incumbents (all but one already knighted) from 22 July 1878 until on 10 March 1925 Cyprus became a crown colony, and the last incumbent stayed on as its first Governor

A High Commission could also be charged with the last phase of a decolonisation, as in the crown colony of the Seychelles (12 November 1970 granted autonomy), where the last Governor, Colin Hamilton Allen (b. 1921 - d. 1993), stayed on as only colonial High Commissioner from 1 October 1975, when self-rule under the Crown was granted, till 28 June 1976 when the archipelago became an independent republic within the Commonwealth

British Protectorates

As diplomatic Residents (as diplomatic ranks were codified, this became a lower class than Ambassadors and High Commissioners) were also appointed to native rulers, that position could on occasion similarly be filled be a colonial Governor. Thus High Commissioners could be charged with managing diplomatic relations with native rulers and their states (analogous to the Resident Minister), and might have under them several Resident Commissioners or similar agents attached to each state. In present Nigeria:

  • Northern Nigeria, three incumbents 1900-1907, the last of which stayed on as first Governor
  • Southern Nigeria, three incumbent 1900-1906 (four terms), the last of which stayed on as first Governor.

In certain regions of particular importance, a Commissioner-General would be appointed, to have control over several High Commissioners and Governors, e.g. the Commissioner-General for South-East Asia had responsibility for Malaya, Singapore and British Borneo.

Governors doubling as High Commissioners

The role of High Commissioner for Southern Africa was coupled with that of British Governor of the Cape Colony in the nineteenth century giving the colonial administrator in question responsibility both for administering British possessions and relating to neighbouring Boer settlements. The best known of these High Commissioners, Alfred Milner who was named to both positions in the 1890s, is considered responsible by some for igniting the Second Boer War.

Historically, in Southern Africa, the protectorates of Bechuanaland (now Botswana), Basutoland (now Lesotho) and Swaziland were administered as High Commission Territories by the Governor-General of South Africa was also the British High Commissioner for Bechuanaland, Basutoland, and Swaziland until the 1930s, with various local representatives, then by the British High Commissioner (from 1961 Ambassador) to South Africa, who was represented locally in each by a Resident Commissioner.

The British Governor of the crown colony of the Straits Settlements, based in Singapore, doubled as High Commissioner of the Federated Malay States, and had authority over the Resident-General in Kuala Lumpur, who in turn was responsible for the various Residents appointed to the native rulers of the Malay states under British protection.

The British Western Pacific Territories were permanently governed as a group of minor insular colonial territories, under one single, not even full time, Western Pacific High Commissioner (1905-1953), an office attached first to the governorship of Fiji, and subsequently to that of the Solomon Islands, represented in each of the other islands units: by a Resident Commissioner, Consul (representative) or other official (on tiny Pitcairn a mere Chief Magistrate).

Currently, there is still one High Commissioner who also serves in an additional capacity as a Governor: the British High Commissioner to New Zealand ex officio serves as British colonial Governor of the Pitcairn Islands.

Other (mainly former, colonial) empires & protectorates

In the (post-)colonial sense, some other powers had High Commissioners, or rather the exact equivalent in their language

French

Originally the French word Haut Commissaire, or in full Haut Commissaire de la république 'High Commissioner of the Republic', was rarely used for governatorial functions, rather (Lieutenant-)gouverneur(-général) and various lower titles. Exceptions were:

  • since 22 March 1907, the colonial Gouverneur of New Caledonia was also appointed as High Commissioner in the Pacific Ocean, to coordinate with the governors of the French Settlements in Oceania and the Governors-general of French Indochina; the French resident commissioner of the Anglo-French condominium Nouvelles Hébrides and the Residents to the island protectorates of Wallis and Futuna were subordinated to him
    • once Charles de Gaulle named someone else as High Commissioner for the French Territory of the Pacific and the Far East, January 1941 - 1945: Georges Thierry d'Argenlieu (b. 1889 - d. 1964), while in December 1941 the Vichy (pro-German) government named Jean Decoux (b. 1884 - d. 1963) to the post (who in fact was only responsible for Wallis and Futuna, which was the only Pacific territory not to have rallied to the Free French at that time).
  • In Atlantic waters, from 14 September 1939 till September 1943, four French Possessions in the Americas (French Guiana, Guadeloupe and Martinique, all in the Caribbean, as well as Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, off the Canadian coast) were temporarily grouped together (from June 1940 under Vichy France, so remaining on the Allied side). The two consecutive 'High Commissioners in the Antilles' (quite a misleading title: French Guyana is in continental South America, St-Pierre&Miquelon off the Canadian coast, so in North America) held both administrative authority over the local Governors and equivalent officers (rather like a gouverneur général did elsewhere on a permanent basis) and military command in the 'Theater Atlantic West':

In the later period of decolonisation, the office of High Commissioner in a colony to become an allied nation was intended to become remarkably analogous to the Commonwealth's 'close relationship diplomats' in President General De Gaulle's project for a French Union to match the Commonwealth, but it soon started to fall apart, so they actually just presided over most of the peaceful decolonisation.

While the colonies above were generally artificially carved creations, Haut commissaires also were appointed by Paris to prepare the (de facto) independence of pre-existing monarchies that had formally been French protectorates, such as:

Yet a colony could achieve independence without a High Commissioner, e.g. Guinée (French Guinea).

In one case a French Haut Commissaire was the exact match and colleague of a British High Commissioner: they represented both powers in the south sea condominium (i.e. territory under joint sovereignty) of the New Hebrides, which became the present republic of Vanuatu.

A very special category was the Haut Commissaire as 'liquidator' of a gouvernement-général (the colonial echelon grouping several neighbouring colonies under a Governor-general), notably:

Another use for the title was found in the rare remaining insulara (formerly no longer colonial) overseas possessions, in these cases still functioning:

  • In French Polynesia it is the title of the representative of the French republic in the overseas territory (restyled 'overseas collectivity' in 2003, 'overseas country' on 27 February 2004) since 13 July 1977 (until 14 September 1984 he also presided the local council of ministers, the that got its own president, as the legislature already had)
  • In New Caledonia (Nouvelle Calédonie in French, colonised in 1853; its Governors had been High Commissioners in the Pacific Ocean from 22 March 1907, see above) the title (commonly corrupted to Haussaire) was chosen for the chief executive on 19 December 1981, when it was an overseas territory (since 1946), even before autonomy was granted on 18 November 1984, and maintained after its status was changed on 20 July 1998 to the unique French collectivité sui generis; he represents the Paris government, while there are a native legislature and government.

Greek

On 30 July 1922, the Hellenic kingdom (Greece) declared Smyrna (the Anatolian Izmir district, occupied by Greece since 12 May 1919) a protectorate. Until on 9 September 1922 Greece restores Smyrna to Turkey after defeat of Greek forces, it had a Greek High Commissioner (21 May 1919 - 8 September 1922): Aristeidis Stergiadis (b. 1861 - d. 1950)

Italian

  • while only various military commanders and since 1916 a Secretary for Civil Affairs in Albania (Ugo Capialbi) had acted for Rome since Italy invaded on 27 December 1914 (occupying Valorë and parts of Southern Albania; on 3 June 1917 Albanian independence under an Italian protectorate was declared by Italy, opposed by most Albanians; adding in November 1918 the former Austro-Hungarian occupied areas to the Italian zone) only since in 1919 an Albanian provisional government recognized by Italy as the legal government of the protected zone, consecutive High Commissioners for the Crown were appointed until Italy effectively withdraw its troops on 3 September 1920 (as agreed on 22 August 1920 when formally recognizing the total independence of Albania):
    • 1919 - 1920 ....
    • 1920 Fortunato Castoldi
    • 1920 - 3 September 1920 Gaetano Conti Manzoni
  • two incumbents appointed by the kingdom in Fiume (a former Austrian province; now Rijeka, in Croatia), after an extraordinary commissionary, in the 31 December 1920 declared, short-lived "Independent State of Fiume", until the accession of its first President
  • in Slovenia, which after 6 - 17 April 1941 Italian-German occupation, was on 17 April 1941 partitioned between Italy, Hungary and Germany, the Italian portion was named province of Lubiana, from 3 May 1941 under a Civil Commissioner, from 3 May 1941 restyled the first of two High Commissioners:
    • 18 April 1941 - 1942 Francesco Saverio Grazioli (b. 1869 - d. 1951)
    • 1942 - 1943 Giuseppe Lombrassa (b. 1906 - d. 1966)

Portuguese

The title Alto Comissário da República (High Commissioner of the Republic) or, simply Alto Comissário, was given to some portuguese colonial governors to who were given, excepcional, enlarged executive and legislative powers, superiors to those of common Governors. In the Monarchy, before 1910, they were known as Comissários Régios (Royal Commissioners). Had been nominated Altos Comissários or Comissários Régios for:

  • Angola:
    • Guilherme Augusto de Brito Capelo (Comissário Régio) - 1896–1897
    • José Mendes Ribeiro de Norton de Matos - 1921–1923
    • Francisco da Cunha Rego Chaves - 1925–1926
    • António Vicente Ferreira - 1926–1928
    • Filomeno da Câmara Melo Cabral - 1929–1930
  • Cabo Verde (Cape Verde):
  • Portuguese India:
    • João António de Brissac das Neves Ferreira (Comissário Régio) - 1896–1897
  • Mozambique:
    • António Enes (Comissário Régio) - 1895
    • José Francisco de Azevedo e Silva - 1911–1912
    • Manuel de Brito Camacho - 1921–1923
    • Vitor Hugo de Azevedo Coutinho - 1924–1926
  • São Tomé and Príncipe:
    • António Elísio Capelo Pires Veloso - 18 December 1974 (three days before the formal granting of autonomy), actually the last of many governors (since 1753, before both islands were separate), staying on until it became an independent republic on 12 July 1975
  • Portuguese Timor:
    • José Joaquim Lopes de Lima (Comissário Régio) - 1851–1852

Spanish

Alto comisario was the Spanish title of the official exercing the functions of a governor in the following colonial possessions:

  • Equatorial Guinea had three consecutive High Commissioners:
    • 15 December 1963 - 1964 Francisco Núñez Rodríguez (b. 1902 - d. 1972), also the last of many Governors since 7 June 1494
    • 1964 - 1966 Pedro Latorre Alcubierre
    • 1966 - 12 October 1968 Víctor Suances Díaz del Río; his term ended when it became an independent republic

The title Alto Comisario was also used for the representative of Spain in its protectorate zone within the Sherifan sultanate of Morocco (most of the country was under French protectorate), known as el Jalifato after the khalifa (Jalifa in Spanish), the Sultan's fully mandated, princely Viceroy in this protectorate, to which the High Commissioner was formally accredited, but whose senior he was in reality. In 1934 - 1956 the Governors of the Western Sahara (which from 27 November 1912 were also Governors-general of Spanish West Africa) were subordinated to him. The office itself was however filled by the governors of Spanish West Africa from 1939 to 1956.

United States

  • While being a U.S. protectorate from 1905 to 1941, the Dominican Republic had first various native regimes, then US military Governors 29 November 1916 - 24 July 1922, and just before it again had the first of its own Presidents on 21 October 1922, a single U.S. High Commissioner, Sumner Welles, who served from 1922 - 1924.
  • Haiti, the other (western) half of the island of Hispaniola, had a similar experience. It was a U.S. protectorate from 1915 to 1936, after five U.S. Military Commanders, there was one High Commissioner, John H. Russell, Jr., who served from 11 February 1922 to 16 November 1930.
  • Following World War I, Rear Admiral Mark Lambert Bristol served as United States High Commissioner for Turkey from 1919 to 1927.
  • the Philippines became a U.S. territory on 13 August 1898. After gaining autonomy on 15 November 1935, it had the following U.S. High Commissioners:
    • 1935 - 1937 Frank William Murphy. Murphy was also the last of the Governors-general.
    • 1937 - 1939 Paul V. McNutt (1st commission).
    • 1939 - 7 September 1942 Francis Bowes Sayers (from 24 December 1941 in U.S. exile during Japanese military occupation).
    • 7 September 1942 - 4 July 1946 Paul V. McNutt (2nd commission) (to August 1945 in U.S. exile during Japanese military occupation). McNutt's termed ended with the official independence of the new republic.

High Commissioners as Extraordinary Government Agents

In many cases, a political vacuum created by war, occupation or other events discontinuing a country's constitutional government has been filled by those able to do so, one nation or often an alliance, installing a transitional (often minimal) governance administered by, or under supervision of, one or more High Commissioners representing it/them. For example:

  • 22 November 1918 - 1919 Alsace-Lorraine, till then part of the defeated German Empire as Elsaß-Lothringen but just occupied by and restored to France, was under haut commissaire Maringer (it would be only fully reintegrated in 1925, after three Commissioners General)

Domestic High Commissioners

In France, a high commissioner, in French haut-commissaire, is a civil servant appointed by the President of France to some high level position within France:

Multilaterally mandated

Representing an international alliance

  • After the naval blockade of Crete in 1898 by France, Italy, Russia and the United Kingdom, Crete became autonomous within the Ottoman Empire. These protecting powers appointed the following as High Commissioner (or "Armostis") until 1908 when the Cretan Assembly unilaterally declared union with Greece (with Crete subsequently formally becoming part of Greece in 1913):
  • Even shortly before on 8 December 1918 the Allied occupation of the Bosporus, the Dardanelles, the eastern coast of the Sea of Marmara, the islands of Imros, Lemnos, Samothrace and Tenedos and 15 km deep into eastern and the eastern shores; entire area demilitarized (Zone of the Straits; complemented 16 March - 10 August 1920 as the allies occupy the Ottoman capital Istanbul) was a military fact, in November 1918 a double post was created: until the termination of allied occupation on 22 October 1923, there were at all times one British Senior Allied High Commissioner and one (junior) Allied High Commissioner (incumbents from France, thrice, Italy and the US, each twice).

Often the main/locally concerned members of an alliance would not set up a joint occupation authority (as in Italy after the Nazi defeat) but simply each appoint one for each of the zones into which they physically divided amongst themselves an occupied state or territory, e.g. after World War II:

  • in Austria, until 27 July 1955 when Allied occupation ends, restoring Austrian sovereignty, it was administered as a British Zone (6 consecutive High Commissioners, July 1945), a US Zone (4 incumbents from 5 July 1945), a Soviet Zone (4 from July 1945; only this had first been under a Military Governor from 8 April 1945) and a French Zone (2, from 8 July 1945);
  • in Germany there were also four major occupation zones: the British Zone (after three consecutive Military governors from 22 May 1945, the last stayed on as first of three consecutive High Commissioners 21 September 1949 - 5 May 1955), the US Zone (after five Military governors from 8 May 1945, four High Commissioners 2 September 1949 - 5 May 1955), the Soviet Zone (after a military commander April 1945 - 9 June 1945 who stayed as first of three Military governors 9 June 1945 - 10 October 1949, the last of whom stayed on as only Chairman of the Soviet Control Commission 10 October 1949 - 28 May 1953, two High commissioners 28 May 1953 - 20 September 1955) and the French Zone (after a Military commander from May 1945 and a Military governor from July 1945, a single High commissioner 21 September 1949 - 5 May 1955); the Nazi capital, Berlin, enclaved in the Soviet zone, is separately quartered under four military City Commanders; only the small Dutch zone by the border is destined for annexation in 1949, so it is divided up in two districts, each under a landdrost (Tudderenen, attached to the province of (Dutch) Limburg and Elten, attached to Gelderland province), but returned to Germany after compensation payments and minor border corrections on 11 August 1963

Emancipatory administrators under International law

  • As the 'world community' became a widely accepted ideal in diplomacy and was embodied first in the League of Nations and later the UNO, these often came to play a key role in extraordinary situations that would earlier probably have been dealt with by states as above, sometimes reflected in the appointment of High Commissioners under their auspices, sometimes just from the same leading powers, sometimes rather from 'neutral' member states.
  • The title of High Commissioner was specifically used for the administrators during the 'emancipation from colonial rule' of League of Nations mandates and United Nations Trust Territories, i.e. non-sovereign states under a 'transitional' regime established under the authority of the League of Nations or the UN, respectively, to prepare them for full independence.

These 'guardianships' most often were simply awarded to the former colonial power or if that was a loser in the preceding World War, to the 'liberating' Allied victor(s).

League of Nations - Mandate territories

United Nations

UN Trust Territories

Other UN administration
  • After the former Italian colony of Eritrea had been under victor Britain's administration since 5 May 1941, a specific United Nations administration, under Britain, was installed on 19 February 1951, under a UN High Commissioner, Edoardo Anze Matienzo (Bolivian, b. 1902), whose office ceased on 15 September 1952 when it was Federated with Ethiopia under the sovereignty of the Ethiopian emperor.

Representing the world universally

At the United Nations and affiliated global organisations, a High Commissioner serves as the permanent chief executive of a commission composed of representatives of various member nations.

See also

References
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