| content | ||||||||||||||||||
| Basic notions in group theory | ||||
| category of groups | ||||
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| subgroups, normal subgroups | ||||
| quotient groups | ||||
| group homomorphisms, kernel, image | ||||
| (semi-)direct product, direct sum | ||||
| types of groups | ||||
| simple, | ||||
| finite, infinite | ||||
| discrete, continuous | ||||
| multiplicative, additive | ||||
| cyclic, abelian, nilpotent, solvable | ||||
In mathematics, given two groups (G, *) and (H, ·), a group homomorphism from (G, *) to (H, ·) is a function h : G → H such that for all u and v in G it holds that
- h(u * v) = h(u) · h(v)
where the group operation on the left hand side of the equation is that of G and on the right hand side that of H.
From this property, one can deduce that h maps the identity element eG of G to the identity element eH of H, and it also maps inverses to inverses in the sense that h(u-1) = h(u)-1. Hence one can say that h "is compatible with the group structure".
Older notations for the homomorphism h(x) may be xh, though this may be confused as an index or a general subscript. A more recent trend is to write group homomorphisms on the right of their arguments, omitting brackets, so that h(x) becomes simply x h. This approach is especially prevalent in areas of group theory where automata play a role, since it accords better with the convention that automata read words from left to right.
In areas of mathematics where one considers groups endowed with additional structure, a homomorphism sometimes means a map which respects not only the group structure (as above) but also the extra structure. For example, a homomorphism of topological groups is often required to be continuous.
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Image and kernel
We define the kernel of h to be the set of elements in G which are mapped to the identity in H
- ker(h) = { u in G : h(u) = eH }
and the image of h to be
- im(h) = { h(u) : u in G }.
The kernel is a normal subgroup of G (in fact, h(g-1 u g) = h(g)-1 h(u) h(g) = h(g)-1 eH h(g) = h(g)-1 h(g) = eH) and the image is a subgroup of H. The homomorphism h is injective (and called a group monomorphism) if and only if ker(h) = {eG}.
The kernel and image a(G) = {a(g), g ∈ G} of a homomorphism can be interpreted as measuring how close it is to being an isomorphism. The First Isomorphism Theorem states that the image of a group homomorphism, a(G) is isomorphic to the quotient group G/ker a.
Examples
- Consider the cyclic group Z/3Z = {0, 1, 2} and the group of integers Z with addition. The map h : Z → Z/3Z with h(u) = u mod 3 is a group homomorphism. It is surjective and its kernel consists of all integers which are divisible by 3.
- The exponential map yields a group homomorphism from the group of real numbers R with addition to the group of non-zero real numbers R* with multiplication. The kernel is {0} and the image consists of the positive real numbers.
- The exponential map also yields a group homomorphism from the group of complex numbers C with addition to the group of non-zero complex numbers C* with multiplication. This map is surjective and has the kernel { 2πki : k in Z }, as can be seen from Euler's formula.
- Given any two groups G and H, the map h : G → H which sends every element of G to the identity element of H is a homomorphism; its kernel is all of G.
- Given any group G, the identity map id : G → G with id(u) = u for all u in G is a group homomorphism.
The category of groups
If h : G → H and k : H → K are group homomorphisms, then so is k o h : G → K. This shows that the class of all groups, together with group homomorphisms as morphisms, forms a category.
Types of homomorphic maps
If the homomorphism h is a bijection, then one can show that its inverse is also a group homomorphism, and h is called a group isomorphism; in this case, the groups G and H are called isomorphic: they differ only in the notation of their elements and are identical for all practical purposes.
If h: G → G is a group homomorphism, we call it an endomorphism of G. If furthermore it is bijective and hence an isomorphism, it is called an automorphism. The set of all automorphisms of a group G, with functional composition as operation, forms itself a group, the automorphism group of G. It is denoted by Aut(G). As an example, the automorphism group of (Z, +) contains only two elements, the identity transformation and multiplication with -1; it is isomorphic to Z/2Z.
An epimorphism is a surjective homomorphism, that is, a homomorphism which is onto as a function. A monomorphism is an injective homomorphism, that is, a homomorphism which is one-to-one as a function.
Homomorphisms of abelian groups
If G and H are abelian (i.e. commutative) groups, then the set Hom(G, H) of all group homomorphisms from G to H is itself an abelian group: the sum h + k of two homomorphisms is defined by
- (h + k)(u) = h(u) + k(u) for all u in G.
The commutativity of H is needed to prove that h + k is again a group homomorphism. The addition of homomorphisms is compatible with the composition of homomorphisms in the following sense: if f is in Hom(K, G), h, k are elements of Hom(G, H), and g is in Hom(H,L), then
- (h + k) o f = (h o f) + (k o f) and g o (h + k) = (g o h) + (g o k).
This shows that the set End(G) of all endomorphisms of an abelian group forms a ring, the endomorphism ring of G. For example, the endomorphism ring of the abelian group consisting of the direct sum of m copies of Z/nZ is isomorphic to the ring of m-by-m matrices with entries in Z/nZ. The above compatibility also shows that the category of all abelian groups with group homomorphisms forms a preadditive category; the existence of direct sums and well-behaved kernels makes this category the prototypical example of an abelian category.
See also
References
- Lang, Serge (2002), Algebra, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 211 (3rd ed.), Springer-Verlag.
External links
