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Contents |
History
For centuries, there have been proposals for some form of European integration. With his "Memorandum on the Organization of a Regime of European Federal Union" in 1930, Aristide Briand produced for the French government the first twentieth-century proposal by a European government for European Unity.
Council of Europe
Against the background of the devastation and suffering during the second World War as well as the need for reconciliation after the war, the idea of European integration led to the creation of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg in 1949. In his famous speech at the University of Zurich in 1946, Winston Churchill had called for a United States of Europe (though he was ambiguous on Britain's role in a United States of Europe) and the creation of a Council of Europe.[1]
The most important achievement of the Council of Europe is the European Convention on Human Rights of 1950 with its European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, which serves as a de facto supreme court for human rights and fundamental freedoms throughout Europe. Human rights are also protected by the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture and the European Social Charter.
Most conventions of the Council of Europe pursue the aim of greater legal integration, such as the conventions on legal assistance, against corruption, against money laundering, against doping in sport, or internet crime.
Cultural co-operation is based on the Cultural Convention of 1954 and subsequent conventions on the recognition of university studies and diplomas as well as on the protection of minority languages.
After the fall of the Berlin Wall, former communist countries in central and eastern Europe were able to accede to the Council of Europe, which now comprises all 47 states in Europe with the exception of Belarus due to its still non-democratic government. Therefore, European integration practically succeeded at the level of the Council of Europe, encompassing the whole European continent.
European integration at the level of the Council of Europe functions through the accession of member states to its conventions as well as through political coordination at the level of ministerial conferences and inter-parliamentary sessions. In accordance with its Statute of 1949, the Council of Europe works to achieve greater unity among its members based on common values, such as human rights and democracy.
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is an international organization whose aim is to secure stability in Europe. It was established as the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) in July 1973, and was subsequently transformed into its current form in January 1995. The OSCE currently has 56 member states, covering most of the northern hemisphere.
The OSCE develops three lines of activities, namely the Politico-Military Dimension, the Economic and Environmental Dimension, and the Human Dimension. These respectively promote (i) mechanisms for conflict prevention and resolution; (ii) the monitoring, alerting and assistance in case of economic and environmental threats; and (iii) full respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
Regional integration
Several Regional integration efforts have effectively removed barriers to free trade in European regions, while increasing the free movement of people, labour, goods, and capital across national borders, and reducing the possibility of regional armed conflict.
Baltic region
The Council of the Baltic Sea States (CBSS) was founded in 1992 to promote intergovernmental cooperation among Baltic Sea countries in questions concerning economy, civil society development, human rights issues, and nuclear and radiation safety. It has 12 members including Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Iceland (since 1995), Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Russia, Sweden and the European Commission.
The Baltic Assembly aims to promote co-operation between the parliaments of the Republics of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The organisation was planned in Vilnius on 1 December 1990, and the three nations agreed to its structure and rules on 13 June 1994.
Benelux
The Benelux is an economic and political union between Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. On September 5, 1944, a treaty establishing the Benelux Customs Union was signed. It entered into force in 1948, and ceased to exist on November 1, 1960, when it was replaced by the Benelux Economic Union after a treaty signed in The Hague on February 3, 1958. A Benelux Parliament was created in 1955.
The Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU) can be seen as the Benelux forerunner. BLEU was created by the treaty signed on 25 July 1921. It established a single market between both countries, while setting the Belgian franc and Luxembourgian franc at a fixed parity.
Common Travel Area
The Common Travel Area is a passport-free zone established in 1922 that comprises the Republic of Ireland, the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey.
The British-Irish Council was created by the Belfast Agreement in 1998 to "promote the harmonious and mutually beneficial development of the totality of relationships among the peoples of these islands". It was formally established on 2 December 1999. Its membership comprises the Ireland, the United Kingdom, three of the constituent countries of the UK ---Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales---, and three British Crown dependencies ---Guernsey, the Isle of Man and Jersey---. Because England does not have a devolved government, it is not represented on the Council as a separate entity.
Nordic region
The Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers is a co-operation forum for the parliaments and governments of the Nordic countries created in February 1953. It includes the states of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden, and their autonomous territories (Faroe Islands, Greenland and Åland).
The Nordic Passport Union, created in 1954 but implemented on May 1, 1958, establishes free movement across borders without passports for the countries' citizens. It comprises Denmark, Sweden and Norway as foundational states; further, it includes Finland and Iceland since September 24, 1965, and the Danish autonomous territories of Faroe Islands since January 1, 1966.
Switzerland - Liechtenstein
Switzerland and Liechtenstein participates in a customs union since 1924, and both employ the Swiss franc as national currency.
Visegrad Group
The Visegrad Group is a Central-European alliance for cooperation and European integration. The Group originated in a summit meeting of Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland held in the Hungarian castle town of Visegrád on February 15, 1991. The Czech Republic and Slovakia became members after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993.
European Communities
In 1951, a few European states agreed to confer powers over their steel and coal production to the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in Luxembourg.
Coal and steel production was essential for the reconstruction of countries in Europe after the second World War and this sector of the national economy had been important for warfare in the first and second World Wars. Therefore, France had originally maintained its occupation of the Saarland with its steel companies after the founding of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) in 1949. By transferring national powers over the coal and steel production to a newly created ECSC Commission, the member states of the ECSC were able to provide for greater transparency and trust among themselves.
This transfer of national powers to a "Community" to be exercised by its Commission was paralled under the 1957 Treaty of Rome establishing the European Atomic Energy Community ---or Euroatom--- and the European Economic Community (ECC) in Brussels.
In 1967, the Merger Treaty combine the institutions of the ECSC and Euratom into that of the EEC. They already shared a Parliamentary Assembly and Courts. Collectively they were known as the European Communities. The Communities still had independent personalities although were increasingly integrated, and over the years were transformed into what is now called the European Union.
A key person in this initiative was Jean Monnet, regarded as the "founding father" of the European Union, which is seen as the dominant force in European integration.
European Free Trade Areas
European Free Trade Association
The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) is a European trade bloc which was established on May 3, 1960 as an alternative for European states who didn't join the EEC. EFTA currently has four member states: Iceland, Norway, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein.
The EFTA Convention was signed on January 4, 1960 in Stockholm by seven states: United Kingdom, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Austria, Switzerland and Portugal. Finland became an associate member in 1961 and a full member in 1986; Iceland joined in 1970, and Liechtenstein did the same in 1991.
The United Kingdom and Denmark left in 1973, when they joined the European Community. Portugal left EFTA in 1986, when it also joined the EC. Austria, Sweden and Finland ceased to be EFTA members in 1995, by joining the European Union.
Baltic Free Trade Area
The Baltic Free Trade Area (BAFTA) was a trade agreement between Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia. It was signed on September 13, 1993 and came into force on April 1, 1994. The agreement was later extended to apply also to agricultural products, effective from January 1, 1997. BAFTA ceased to exist when its members joined the EU on May 1, 2004.
Central European Free Trade Agreement
The Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) is a trade agreement between countries in Central and South-Eastern Europe, which works as a preparation for full European Union membership. It currently has 8 members: Croatia, Macedonia, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia and Kosovo.
It was established in 1992 ---but came into force in 1994--- by Czechoslovakia (which split in Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993), Hungary and Poland. Slovenia joined in 1996, while Romania did the same in 1997, Bulgaria in 1999, and Croatia in 2003.
In 2004, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Slovenia left the CEFTA to join the EU. Romania and Bulgaria left it in 2007 for the same reason.
Subsequently, Macedonia joined it in 2006, and Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia and UNMIK (on behalf of Kosovo) in 2007.
Eastern Enlargement
In 2008, Poland and Sweden proposed to set a free trade area between the EU and eastern countries such as Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine.[2]
European Union
The institutions of the European Union, its parliamentarians, judges, commissioners and secretariat, the governments of its member states as well as their people, all play a role in European Integration. Nevertheless, the question of who plays the key role is disputed as there are different theories on European Integration focusing on different actors and agency.
The European Union has a number of relationships with nations that are not formally part of the Union. According to the European Union's official site, and a statement by Commissioner Günter Verheugen, the aim is to have a ring of countries, sharing EU's democratic ideals and joining them in further integration without necessarily becoming full member states.
Economic integration
- Further information: Economy of the European Union
- Further information: Third country economic relationships with the European Union
The European Union operates a single economic market across the territory of all its members, and uses a single currency between the Eurozone members. Further, the EU has a number of economic relationships with nations that are not formally part of the Union through the European Economic Area and custom union agreements.
Customs Union
The European Customs Union defines an area where no customs are levied on goods travelling within it. It includes all European Union member states. The abolition of internal tariff barriers between ECC member states was achieved in 1968.
Further, Turkey, Andorra and San Marino belong to the EU customs unions with third states.
Single Market
A prominent goal of the EU since its creation by the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 is establishing and maintaining a single market This seeks to guarantee the four basic freedoms, which are related to ensure the free movement of goods, services, capital and people around the EU's internal market.
The European Economic Area (EEA) agreement allows Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein to participate in the European Single Market without joining the EU. The four basic freedoms apply. However, some restrictions on fisheries and agriculture take place. Switzerland is linked to the European Union by Swiss-EU bilateral agreements, with a different content from that of the EEA agreement.
Eurozone
The Eurozone refers to the European Union member states that have adopted the euro currency union as the third stage of the European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). Further, certain states outside the EU have adopted the euro as their currency, despite not belonging to the EMU. Thus, a total of 21 states, including 15 European Union states and six non-EU members, currently use the euro.
The Eurozone came into existence with the official launch of the euro on 1 January 1999. Physical coins and banknotes were introduced on 1 January 2002.
The original members were Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany,Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain. Greece was admitted on 1 January 2001. Slovenia joined on 1 January 2007. Cyprus and Malta were admitted on 1 January 2008.
Outside the EU, agreements have been concluded with Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City for formal adoption, including the right to mint their own coins. Andorra, Montenegro and Kosovo have also used the euro since its launch.
Schengen zone
The main purpose of the establishment of the Schengen Agreement is the abolition of physical borders among European countries. A total of 29 states, including 25 European Union states and four non-EU members (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland), are subject to the Schengen rules. 24 states have already implemented the agreements. Further, Monaco, San Marino and Vatican City are de-facto members.
Military
- Further information: Military of the European Union
The European Union is not a state and as such does not have its own dedicated military forces. However, there are a number of multi-national military and peacekeeping forces which are ultimately under the command of the EU, and therefore can be seen as the core for a future European Union army[3].
The Western European Union (WEU) capabilities and functions have been transferred to the European Union, under its developing Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP)[4].
| State | EU | Common Market (EEA) | Customs Union | Schengen | EMU (Euro) | Military |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Andorra |
No | No | 1991 [5] | No | Unilaterally adopted | No |
 Austria |
1 Jan. 1995 | 1 Jan. 1994 | Yes | 26 Dec. 1997 | 1999 | EU BGs |
 Belgium |
1 Jan. 1958 | 1 Jan. 1993 | Yes | 26 Mar. 1995 | 1999 | Eurofor, Eurocorps, EU BGs |
 Bulgaria |
1 Jan. 2007 | 1 Jan. 2007 | Yes | No | No | EU BGs |
 Croatia |
Candidate | No | No | No | No | No |
 Cyprus |
1 May 2004 | 1 May 2004 | Yes | No | 2008 | EU BGs |
 Czech Republic |
1 May 2004 | 1 May 2004 | Yes | 21 Dec. 2007 | No | EU BGs |
 Denmark |
1 Jan. 1973 | 1 Jan. 1993 | Yes | 25 Mar. 2001 | No | No |
 Estonia |
1 May 2004 | 1 May 2004 | Yes | 21 Dec. 2007 | No | EU BGs |
 Finland |
1 Jan. 1995 | 1 Jan. 1994 | Yes | 25 Mar. 2001 | 1999 | EU BGs |
 France |
1 Jan. 1958 | 1 Jan. 1993 | Yes | 26 Mar. 1995 | 1999 | Eurofor, Eurocorps, EU BGs, EGF |
 Germany |
1 Jan. 1958 [6] | 1 Jan. 1993 | Yes | 26 Mar. 1995 | 1999 | Eurocorps, EU BGs |
 Greece |
1 Jan. 1981 | 1 Jan. 1993 | Yes | 26 Mar. 2000 | 2001 | EU BGs |
 Hungary |
1 May 2004 | 1 May 2004 | Yes | 21 Dec. 2007 | No | EU BGs |
 Iceland |
No | 1 Jan. 1994 | No | 25 Mar. 2001 | No | No |
 Ireland |
1 Jan. 1973 | 1 Jan. 1993 | Yes | No | 1999 | EU BGs |
 Italy |
1 Jan. 1958 | 1 Jan. 1993 | Yes | 26 Oct. 1997 | 1999 | Eurofor, EU BGs, EGF |
 Kosovo |
No | No | No | No | Unilaterally adopted | No |
 Latvia |
1 May 2004 | 1 May 2004 | Yes | 21 Dec. 2007 | No | EU BGs |
 Lithuania |
1 May 2004 | 1 May 2004 | Yes | 21 Dec. 2007 | No | EU BGs |
 Liechtenstein |
No | 1 May 1995 [7] | No | Signatory | No | No |
 Luxembourg |
1 Jan. 1958 | 1 Jan. 1993 | Yes | 26 Mar. 1995 | 1999 | Eurocorps, EU BGs |
 FYRO Macedonia |
Candidate | No | No | No | No | No |
 Malta |
1 May 2004 | 1 May 2004 | Yes | 21 Dec. 2007 | 2008 | No |
 Monaco |
No | No | de facto, with France | de facto, with France | Adoption agreement | No |
 Montenegro |
No | No | No | No | Unilaterally adopted | No |
 Netherlands |
1 Jan. 1958 | 1 Jan. 1993 | Yes | 26 Mar. 1995 | 1999 | EU BGs, EGF |
 Norway |
No [8] | 1 Jan. 1994 | No | 25 Mar. 2001 | No | EU BGs |
 Poland |
1 May 2004 | 1 May 2004 | Yes | 21 Dec. 2007 | No | EU BGs |
 Portugal |
1 Jan. 1986 | 1 Jan. 1993 | Yes | 26 Mar. 1995 | 1999 | Eurofor, EU BGs, EGF |
 Romania |
1 Jan. 2007 | 1 Jan. 2007 | Yes | No | No | EU BGs |
 San Marino |
No | No | 2002 | Open border | Adoption agreement | No |
 Spain |
1 Jan. 1986 | 1 Jan. 1993 | Yes | 26 Mar. 1995 | 1999 | Eurofor, Eurocorps, EU BGs, EGF |
 Slovakia |
1 May 2004 | 1 May 2004 | Yes | 21 Dec. 2007 | No | EU BGs |
 Slovenia |
1 May 2004 | 1 May 2004 | Yes | 21 Dec. 2007 | 2007 | EU BGs |
 Sweden |
1 Jan. 1995 | 1 Jan. 1994 | Yes | 25 Mar. 2001 | No | EU BGs |
 Switzerland |
Application frozen | Bilateral treaties [9] | No | Signatory | No | No |
 Turkey |
Candidate | No | 1996 [10] | No | No | EU BGs |
 United Kingdom |
1 Jan. 1973 | 1 Jan. 1993 | Yes | No | No | EU BGs |
 Vatican City |
No | No | No | Open border | Adoption agreement | No |
Euro-Mediterranean Partnership
The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership or Barcelona Process was organised by the European Union to strengthen its relations with the countries in the Mashriq and Maghreb regions. It started in 1995 with the Barcelona Euro-Mediterranean Conference, and it has been developed in successive annual meetings.
The European Union enlargement of 2004 brought two Mediterranean countries (Cyprus and Malta) into the Union, while adding a total of 10 to the number of Member States. The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership today comprises 37 members: 27 EU member states and 10 Mediterranean Partners (Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, the Palestinian Authority, Syria, Tunisia and Turkey). Libya has had observer status since 1999.
The Euro-Mediterranean Free Trade Area (EU-MEFTA) is based on the Barcelona Process and European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP). It will cover the EU, the EFTA, the EU customs unions with third states (Turkey, Andorra, San Marino), the EU candidate states, and the partners of the Barcelona Process.
The Mediterranean Union is a proposed community of countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea planned to be established in 2008. [11]
Theories of Integration
The question of how to avoid wars between the nation-states was essential for the first theories. Federalism and Functionalism proposed the containment of the nation-state, while Transactionalism sought to theorize the conditions for the stabilization of the nation-state system. One of the most influential theories of European integration is Neo-functionalism, developed by Ernst B. Haas (1958) and further investigated by Leon Lindberg (1963). The important debate between neofunctionialism and (liberal) intergovernmentalism still remains central in understanding the development and set-backs of the European Union. But as the empirical world has changed, so have the theories and thus the understanding of European Integration. Today there is a relatively new focus on the complex policy making in the EU and Multi-level governance theory (MLG) trying to produce a theory of the workings and development of the EU.
Future of European Integration
There is no fixed end result of the process of integration. Integration and enlargement of the European Union are major issues in the politics of Europe, both at European, national and local level. Integration may conflict with national sovereignty and cultural identity, and is opposed by eurosceptics.
See also
- Enlargement of the European Union
- European Coal and Steel Community
- European Foreign Policy
- Pan-European identity
- Federalism
- Federal Europe
- Multi-speed Europe
- Europeanism
- Pro-European
- Euroscepticism
- Intergovernmentalism
- Multi-level governance
- Neofunctionalism
- Supranationalism
- United States of Europe
References
- ^ Mauter, Wendell (1998). "Churchill and the Unification of Europe". Churchill Facts. The Churchill Centre. Archived from the original on 2006-12-17. Retrieved on 2008-04-14.
- ^ "EU Looks East as Foreign Policy Council Convenes" dw-world.de 25 May 2008 Link accessed 25/05/08
- ^ New force behind EU foreign policy BBC News - 15 March 2007
- ^ Marseille Declaration 2000 weu.int
- ^ Excluding agricultural products
- ^ 3 Oct. 1990 for East Germany
- ^ Delayed from 1 Jan. 1994 due to a previous customs union with Switzerland
- ^ accession rejected in two referenda (1972 and 1994)
- ^ Switzerland and the European Union
- ^ Excluding agricultural products
- ^ Sarkozy sounds out basis for Mediterranean Union Euractiv.com 16/07/07. Accessed 2007-07-19.
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