Antiquark
This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Antiquark".

For other uses, see Quark (disambiguation).
The six flavors of quarks and their most likely decay modes. Mass increases moving from left to right.
The six flavors of quarks and their most likely decay modes. Mass increases moving from left to right.

A quark (IPA: /kwɔrk/, IPA: /kwɑːk/ or IPA: /kwɑːrk/)[1] is a generic type of physical particle that interacts via all four fundamental forces[2] and that forms one of the two basic constituents of matter, the other being the lepton.[3] Various flavors of quarks combine in specific ways to form protons and neutrons, in each case taking exactly three quarks to make the composite particle in question.

There are six different types of quarks, usually known as flavors: up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom.[4] The charm, strange, top, and bottom varieties are highly unstable, and are believed to have decayed within a fraction of a second after the Big Bang – though they can be briefly recreated and studied by scientists. However, the "up" and "down" varieties are abundant and are distinguished by (amongst other things) their electric charge. It is this which makes the difference when quarks clump together to form protons or neutrons: a proton is made up of two "up quarks" and one "down quark", yielding a net charge of +1, while a neutron contains one "up quark" and two "down quarks", yielding a net charge of 0.

In nature, quarks are always found bound together in groups like this, and never in isolation, because of a phenomenon known as confinement. These groups of quarks are called hadrons, with groups of two quarks known specifically as mesons and groups of three quarks as baryons. Various combinations of the six flavors account for all of the 200 or more known mesons and baryons.[4]

Antiparticles of quarks are called antiquarks, which have properties similar to those of the quark, but an opposite charge.[5] Notation of antiquarks follows that of antimatter in general: an up quark is denoted by u, and an up antiquark is denoted by u.[6]

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Contents

Properties

The following table summarizes the key properties of the six known quarks:

Quark flavor properties[7]
Generation Weak
Isospin		 Flavor Name Symbol Charge
e		 Mass
MeV/c2		 Antiparticle Antiparticle
Symbol
1 +½ Iz=+½ Up u +⅔ 1.5 – 4.0 Antiup u
1 -½ Iz=-½ Down d -⅓ 4 – 8 Antidown d
2 +½ C=1 Charm c +⅔ 1150 – 1350 Anticharm c
2 -½ S=-1 Strange s -⅓ 80 – 130 Antistrange s
3 +½ T=1 Top[8] t +⅔ 170900 ± 1800[9] Antitop t
3 -½ B=-1 Bottom b -⅓ 4100 – 4400 Antibottom b
  • The quantum numbers of the top and bottom quarks are sometimes known as truth and beauty respectively, as an alternative to topness and bottomness.[10]

Flavor

Standard Model of Elementary Particles
Standard Model of Elementary Particles

Each flavor of quark is assigned a baryon number (B  =  1/3), an internal property which differentiates quarks from leptons, and a vanishing lepton number (L  =  0).[11] They have fractional electric charge, Q, either Q  =  +2/3 or Q  =  −1/3, depending on their flavor.[12][13] Each quark is assigned a weak isospin: Tz  =  +1/2 for an up-type quark and Tz  =  −1/2 for a down-type quark. Each doublet of weak isospin defines a generation of quarks. There are three generations, and hence six flavors of quarks — the up and down flavors comprise the first generation, the strange and charm the second, and the top and bottom the third.[14]

The number of generations of quarks and leptons are equal in the standard model, with two flavors in each generation.[15] The number of generations of leptons with a light neutrino is strongly constrained by experiments at the LEP in CERN and by observations of the abundance of helium in the universe. Precision measurement of the lifetime of the Z boson at LEP constrains the number of light neutrino generations to be three. Astronomical observations of helium abundance give consistent results. Results of direct searches for a fourth generation give limits on the mass of the lightest possible fourth generation quark. The most stringent limit comes from analysis of results from the Tevatron collider at Fermilab, and shows that the mass of a fourth-generation quark must be greater than 190 GeV in order to remain stable.[16] Additional limits on extra quark generations come from measurements of quark mixing performed by the experiments Belle and BaBar.

Each flavor defines a quantum number which is conserved under the strong interactions, but not the weak interactions. The magnitude of flavor changing in the weak interaction is encoded into a structure called the CKM matrix. This also encodes the CP violation allowed in the Standard Model.[17]

Spin

Quantum numbers corresponding to non-Abelian symmetries like rotations require more care in extraction, since they are not additive. In the quark model one builds mesons out of a quark and an antiquark, whereas baryons are built from three quarks.[18] Since mesons are bosons (having integer spins) and baryons are fermions (having half-integer spins), the quark model implies that quarks are fermions. Quarks have two spin states, spin up and spin down. The combination of color, spin and charge gives a total of 36 possible quark states.[19] Further, the fact that the lightest baryons have spin-1/2 implies that each quark can have spin S  =  1/2.[20] The spins of excited mesons and baryons are completely consistent with this assignment.

Color

Main article: Color charge

Since quarks are fermions, the Pauli exclusion principle implies that the three valence quarks must be in an antisymmetric combination in a baryon. However, the charge Q =  2 baryon, Δ++ (which is one of four isospin Iz  =  3/2 baryons) can only be made of three u quarks with parallel spins. Since this configuration is symmetric under interchange of the quarks, it implies that there exists another internal quantum number, which would then make the combination antisymmetric. This is given the name "color", although it has nothing to do with the perception of the frequency (or wavelength) of light, which is the usual meaning of color.[21] This quantum number is the charge involved in the gauge theory called quantum chromodynamics (QCD).

The only other colored particle is the gluon, which is the gauge boson of QCD. Like all other non-Abelian gauge theories (and unlike quantum electrodynamics) the gauge bosons interact with one another by the same force that affects the quarks. In this way, the color charge of both particles is largely dependent on the opposing quark or gluon, and a color charge change necessitates an interaction.[22]

Color is a gauged SU(3) symmetry. Quarks are placed in the fundamental representation, 3, and hence come in three colors (red, green, and blue). Gluons are placed in the adjoint representation, 8, and hence come in eight varieties.

Mass

Due to hadronization, quark masses cannot be measured directly and must be inferred from the effects they have on their parent hadron's properties.

Current quark mass

The approximate chiral symmetry of quantum chromodynamics, for example, allows one to define the ratio between various (up, down and strange) quark masses through combinations of the masses of the pseudo-scalar meson octet in the quark model through chiral perturbation theory, giving

\frac{m_u}{m_d}=0.56\qquad{\rm and}\qquad\frac{m_s}{m_d}=20.1.

The fact that the up quark has mass is important, since there would be no strong CP problem if it were massless. The absolute values of the masses are currently determined from QCD sum rules (also called spectral function sum rules) and lattice QCD. Masses determined in this manner are called current quark masses. The connection between different definitions of the current quark masses needs the full machinery of renormalization for its specification.


Heavy quark masses

The masses of the heavy charm and bottom quarks are obtained from the masses of hadrons containing a single heavy quark (and one light antiquark or two light quarks) and from the analysis of quarkonia. Lattice QCD computations using the heavy quark effective theory (HQET) or non-relativistic quantum chromodynamics (NRQCD) are currently used to determine these quark masses.

The top quark is sufficiently heavy that perturbative QCD can be used to determine its mass. Before its discovery in 1995, the best theoretical estimates of the top quark mass are obtained from global analysis of precision tests of the Standard Model. The top quark, however, is unique amongst quarks in that it decays before having a chance to hadronize. Thus, its mass can be directly measured from the resulting decay products. This can only be done at the Tevatron which is the only particle accelerator energetic enough to produce top quarks in abundance.

Confinement and quark properties

Main article: Color confinement

Every subatomic particle is completely described by a small set of observables such as mass m and quantum numbers, such as spin b and parity r. Usually these properties are directly determined by experiments and related scientific observations. However, confinement makes it impossible to measure these properties of quarks experimentally or in any direct way. Instead, they must be inferred from measurable properties of the composite particles which are made up of quarks. Such inferences are usually most easily made for certain additive quantum numbers called flavors. Such information can then be used to determine further details about the quark.[23]

The composite particles made of quarks and antiquarks are the hadrons. There are two types of hadron; the mesons, which get their quantum numbers from a quark and an antiquark, and the baryons, which get theirs from three quarks.[24] The quarks (and antiquarks) which impart quantum numbers to hadrons are called "valence" quarks. Apart from these, any hadron may contain an indefinite number of virtual quarks, antiquarks and gluons which together contribute nothing to their quantum numbers. Such virtual quarks are called "sea" quarks.

1974 discovery photograph of a possible charmed baryon, now identified as the Σ++c
1974 discovery photograph of a possible charmed baryon, now identified as the Σ++c

Some have suggested that particularly massive so-called "neutron stars", collapsed remnants of a massive star in which the protons and electrons degenerate and combine to form neutrons, might actually exist instead in the form of up, down and strange quarks as a singular in what is called a quark star.[25] The conversion from neutron star to quark star is referred to as a "quark-nova". This event is predicted to be one of the most powerful in the universe, with calculations revealing that up to 1053 erg of energy might be released from the quark-nova process.[26]

Free quarks

No search for free quarks or fractional electric charges has returned convincing evidence. The absence of free quarks has therefore been incorporated into the notion of confinement, which, it is believed, the theory of quarks must possess. This was expounded upon by Frank Wilczek, H. David Politzer and David Gross who concluded that the more quarks separated, the greater the attraction due to the strong force, making it impossible to separate the quarks into free particles. This has been called asymptotic freedom, for which Gross, Politzer, and Wilczek were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2004.[27]

Confinement began as an experimental observation, and is expected to follow from the modern theory of strong interactions, called quantum chromodynamics (QCD). Although there is no mathematical derivation of confinement in QCD, it is easy to show using lattice gauge theory.

However, it may be possible to change the confinement by creating dense or hot quark matter. These new phases of QCD matter have been predicted theoretically, and experimental searches for them have now started at the RHIC. Under some theories, sufficient energy input by high-speed relativistic collisions such as at the RHIC and planned at the LHC might also generate strange quarks arising from the vacuum, which could recombine with the up and down quarks to form a new type of nucleon called a strangelet or strange quark matter. Wilczek cautioned that there might be concern for an "ice-9" type reaction, in which a strangelet engaged in runaway fusion with normal nuclei, in a Letter[28] to the Editor of Scientific American in 1999. However, he concluded that there likely should be no cause for concern, as most theories[29] show such strangelets to be positively charged, and would repulse normal nuclei due to the charge repulsion of Coulomb's law.


History

Murray Gell-Mann in 2007. Gell-Mann and a cohort first theorised the quark model in 1964.
Murray Gell-Mann in 2007. Gell-Mann and a cohort first theorised the quark model in 1964.

The notion of quarks evolved out of a classification of hadrons developed independently in 1964 by Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig, which today is called the quark model.[30] The scheme grouped together particles with isospin and strangeness using a unitary symmetry derived from current algebra, which we today recognize as part of the approximate chiral symmetry of QCD. This is a global flavor SU(3) symmetry, which should not be confused with the gauge symmetry of QCD.

In this scheme the lightest mesons (spin-0) and baryons (spin-½) are grouped together into octets, 8, of flavor symmetry. A classification of the spin-3/2 baryons into the representation 10 yielded a prediction of a new particle, Ω−, the discovery of which in 1964 led to wide acceptance of the model. The missing representation 3 was identified with quarks.

This scheme was called the eightfold way by Gell-Mann, a clever conflation of the octets of the model with the eightfold way of Buddhism. He also chose the name quark and attributed it to the sentence “Three quarks for Muster Mark” in James Joyce's Finnegans Wake.[31] In reply to the common claim that he did not actually believe that quarks were real physical entities, Gell-Mann has been quoted as saying - "That is baloney. I have explained so many times that I believed from the beginning that quarks were confined inside objects like neutrons and protons, and in my early papers on quarks I described how they could be confined either by an infinite mass and infinite binding energy, or by a potential rising to infinity, which is what we believe today to be correct. Unfortunately, I referred to confined quarks as 'fictitious', meaning that they could not emerge to be utilized for applications such as catalysing nuclear fusion."[32]

Analysis of certain properties of high energy reactions of hadrons led Richard Feynman to postulate substructures of hadrons, which he called partons (since they form part of hadrons). A scaling of deep inelastic scattering cross sections derived from current algebra by James Bjorken received an explanation in terms of partons. When Bjorken scaling was verified in an experiment in 1969, it was immediately realized that partons and quarks could be the same thing. With the proof of asymptotic freedom in QCD in 1973 by David Gross, Frank Wilczek and David Politzer the connection was firmly established.

The charm quark was postulated by Sheldon Glashow, John Iliopoulos and Luciano Maiani in 1970 to prevent unphysical flavor changes in weak decays which would otherwise occur in the standard model. The discovery in 1974 of the meson which came to be called the J/ψ led to the recognition that it was made of a charm quark and its antiquark.

The existence of a third generation of quarks was predicted by Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa in 1973 who realized that the observed violation of CP symmetry by neutral kaons could not be accommodated into the Standard Model with two generations of quarks. The bottom quark was discovered in 1977 and the top quark in 1996 at the Tevatron collider in Fermilab.

Origin of the word

The word was originally coined by Murray Gell-Mann as the sound atomic ducks make,[33] but without a spelling. Later, he found the word "quark" in James Joyce's book Finnegans Wake, and used the spelling but not the pronunciation:

Three quarks for Muster Mark!
Sure he has not got much of a bark
And sure any he has it's all beside the mark.

In 1963, when I assigned the name "quark" to the fundamental constituents of the nucleon, I had the sound first, without the spelling, which could have been "kwork". Then, in one of my occasional perusals of Finnegans Wake, by James Joyce, I came across the word "quark" in the phrase "Three quarks for Muster Mark". Since "quark" (meaning, for one thing, the cry of the gull) was clearly intended to rhyme with "Mark," as well as "bark" and other such words, I had to find an excuse to pronounce it as "kwork". But the book represents the dream of a publican named Humphrey Chimpden Earwicker. Words in the text are typically drawn from several sources at once, like the "portmanteau" words in "Through the Looking Glass". From time to time, phrases occur in the book that are partially determined by calls for drinks at the bar. I argued, therefore, that perhaps one of the multiple sources of the cry "Three quarks for Muster Mark" might be "Three quarts for Mister Mark," in which case the pronunciation "kwork" would not be totally unjustified. In any case, the number three fitted perfectly the way quarks occur in nature.

—Murray Gell-Mann, The Quark and the Jaguar: Adventures in the Simple and the Complex[34][35]

See also

References and external links

  1. ^ "Oxford University Press, 2005". Retrieved on 29 June 2008.
  2. ^ "quark (subatomic particle) -- Britannica Online". Retrieved on 29 June 2008.
  3. ^ "Fundamental Particles". Retrieved on 29 June 2008.
  4. ^ a b "Quarks". Retrieved on 29 June 2008.
  5. ^ Michael Keith. "Quarks and Antiquarks". Retrieved on 30 June 2008.
  6. ^ K. Lee Lerner Larry Gilman. "The Standard Model". Retrieved on 30 June 2008.
  7. ^ Dr. Rasool Javahery. "Simple Explanation of Quarks Properties". The General Science Journal. Retrieved on 30 June 2008.
  8. ^ "Tevatron Electroweak Working Group". Retrieved on 30 June 2008.
  9. ^ "Summary of Top Mass Results - March 2007".
  10. ^ Ho-Kim, Quang (1998). Elementary Particles and Their Interactions: Concepts and Phenomena. Springer, 169. ISBN 3540636676. 
  11. ^ Allday, James (2002). Quarks, Leptons and the Big Bang. CRC Press, 110. ISBN 0750308060. 
  12. ^ Krige, John; Dominique Pestre (1997). Science in the Twentieth Century, 612. ISBN 9057021722. 
  13. ^ The electrical charges stated correspond to up and down flavors respectively, as they are the only two flavors of quarks that occur in nature.
  14. ^ "Search for Third Generation Leptoquarks". Retrieved on 6 July 2008.
  15. ^ James S. Welsh. "Quarks, Leptons, Fermions, and Bosons—The Subatomic World of Radiation Therapy". The Oncologist. Retrieved on 7 July 2008.
  16. ^ W.M. Yao. "b (4th Generation) Quark, Searches for". Retrieved on 7 July 2008.
  17. ^ The flavor quantum numbers are described in detail in the article on flavor.
  18. ^ "Quarks - basic information". Retrieved on 10 July 2008.
  19. ^ Broglie, Louis de (1984). The Wave-particle Dualism. Springer. ISBN 9027716641. 
  20. ^ Close, Frank (2006). The New Cosmic Onion. CRC Press, 82. ISBN 1584887982. 
  21. ^ "Quark color". Retrieved on 3 August 2008.
  22. ^ Overman, Dean L. (2001). A Case Against Accident and Self-Organization. ISBN 0742511677. 
  23. ^ Papenfuss, Dietrich; Dieter Lüst, Wolfgang Schleich (2002). 100 Years Werner Heisenberg. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3527403922. 
  24. ^ "Theory: Hadrons (SLAC VVC)". Retrieved on 18 August 2008.
  25. ^ Ashby, Neil; David F. Bartlett, Walter Wyss (1989). General Relativity and Gravitation, 1989. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521384281. 
  26. ^ "Theories of Quark-novae". Retrieved on 18 August 2008.
  27. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2004". Retrieved on 26 May 2008.
  28. ^ Scientific American, July, 1999
  29. ^ "New Solutions for the Color-Flavored Locked Strangelets"; G.X. Peng, X.J.Wen, and Y.D. Chen, of the China Center of Advanced Science (World Lab.) [Beijing], the Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences [Beijing], and the Center for Theoretical Physics MIT [Cambridge], respectively; December 9, 2005
  30. ^ Prosper, Harrison B. (2007-06-17). "The Standard Model and Beyond". Fermilab. 
  31. ^ quark 1. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  32. ^ Rodgers 2003.
  33. ^ Gribbin, John. "Richard Feynman: A Life in Science" Dutton 1997, pg 194.
  34. ^ Gell-Mann, Murray (1995). The Quark and the Jaguar. Owl Books, 180. ISBN 978-0805072532. 
  35. ^ Take Our Word For It, page two, Words to the Wise

Primary and secondary sources

Other references

v • d • e
Particles in physics
Elementary particles
Fermions:  Quarks: u · d · c · s · t · b • Leptons: e− · e+ · μ− · μ+ · τ− · τ+ · νe · νμ · ντ · νe · νμ · ντ
Bosons:  Gauge bosons: γ · g · W± · Z 
Other:  Ghosts
Composite particles
Hadrons:  Baryons/Hyperons/Nucleons: p+ · n0 · Δ · Λ · Σ · Ξ · Ω • Mesons/Quarkonia: π · K · ρ · J/ψ · Υ
Other:  Atomic nuclei • Atoms • Exotic atoms: Positronium · Muonium · Onia • Molecules
Hypothetical elementary particles
Hypothetical composite particles
Quasiparticles
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